Blueprint FL 2: P/S Flashcards
parallel play
a form of play in which children play adjacent to each other and observing each other, but not actually playing together or interacting
assimilation
occurs when an individual from one culture gradually takes on characteristics of another culture
the individual seeks to interact with the new culture and reject the native culture
separation
in terms of culture
the opposite of assimilation
rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture
prejudice
an unfavorable opinion or feeling formed beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or reason (usually based on stereotypes)
socialization
the process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one’s society
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
stimulus → physiological response → emotion
What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
stimulus → physiological response + emotion
physiological experiences and emotion occur simultaneously
What is the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion?
stimulus → physiological response + the cognitive interpretation of response → emotion
S + S = sensation + solve
What is the Lazarus theory of emotion?
stimulus → cognitive labelling/interpretation of event → physiological response + emotion
“Lazarus Labels first”
Lazarus theory of emotion could also be called…
the cognitive appraisal theory of emotion
what are the 4 stages of cognitive development?
sensori-motor
pre-operational
concrete operational
formal operational
what ages are associated with the sensory-motor stage
0-2
what ages are associated with the pre-operational stage
2-7
what ages are associated with the concrete operational stage
7-11
what ages are associated with the formal operational stage
11+
sensory motor stage
coordination of sense with motor responses
sensory curiosity of the world
object permanence is developed
key milestone of sensory motor stage
the development of object permanence
pre-operational stage
symbolic functions and intuitive thoughts
lots of pretend play
cannot apply specific cognitive operations
learn that words, gestures, etc. have symbolic meaning
egocentric → think others see the world like we do
key milestone of the pre-operational stage
conservation
concrete operational
can think logically about the world
concrete cognitive operations (ex. sorting objects)
learn conservation
learn some math
can use deductive logic
formal operational
can think abstractly about the world
can consider hypothetical events
reliabilty
the extent to which the outcomes are consistent when the experiment is repeated
consistency
validity
the extent to which the tools of the experiment are measuring what you want them to measure
accuracy
reliability vs validity
bow and arrow
functionalism
functionalist theory
a theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions, roles, norms, etc. — serve a purpose and that all are necessary for the long-term survival of the society
conflict theory
a theory that society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited resources
says that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than by consensus and conformity
symbolic interactionism
the theory that people’s actions are based on the meanings they assign to things, which can differ depending on the person and can change over time
social stratification
a society’s categorization of its people into rankings based on factors like wealth, income, education, family background, and power
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
says that needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up
meaning of Maslows “self-actualization”
to achieve one’s full potential
ex. realizing your dreams, being true to yourself, and achieving inner peace
top of the pyramid of needs
Freuds theory of personality
the mind is divided into three components: id, ego, and superego
balance between the 3 is necessary for a healthy personality
Freud: ID
the impulsive part of your personality that is driven by pleasure and repulsed by pain
present from birth
Freud: superego
the judgmental and morally correct part of your personality
operates on ideals and morals
Freud: ego
the conscious part of your personality that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego and makes decisions
ID, ego, superego
which are conscious vs unconcious
ego: elements of both
superego: elements of both, mostly preconscious
ID: entirely uncoscious
cognitive dissonance
occurs when a person’s behavior and beliefs do not complement each other
or when someone holds two contradictory beliefs
leads to a mental toll and sometimes a change in beliefs or behaviours
ethnocentrism
measuring or judging one’s own culture against another culture
the belief that one’s own cultural rules are the best and often better than another culture’s rules
cultural relativism
the idea that a person’s beliefs and practices should be understood based on the context of that person’s own culture
altruism
doing good for others even if it comes at an expense or risk to ourselves
health disparities
preventable differences in health that are experienced by socially disadvantaged populations
folkways
social norms that govern everyday behavior; don’t necessarily represent moral views; less strict than mores; common rules or manners
ex. covering your mouth when you cough, wearing covered shoes to a restaurant
mores
moral standards that determine right and wrong
some mores are illegal to break, while others may hust be offensive to most people of that culture
examples: lying, stealing, gossiping, bullying, and trespassing
taboos
strong negative norms that are considered completely unacceptable by a culture
ex. incest, cannabalism
rank the types of norms from least to most important not to break…
folkways < mores < taboos
Experimental design
a study where we test to prove a causal relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable; participants are randomly assigned to different groups or levels of the independent variable and analyzed under controlled conditions
Longitudinal study
a study that is conducted over a long period of time, usually uses a specific cohort of people
Retrospective study:
observational study type where we look back at information in the past to try and find a trend between events in the past and current outcomes
Prospective study:
a study where we follow groups of people and see how their behavior in that time influence future outcomes
Mixed-method research design:
a study where you use both qualitative and quantitative measures to conduct your study
Cohort study design:
observational study where a cohort (group of people with a common characteristic) are chosen and followed over time to evaluate for the occurrence of the outcome of interest
Case control design:
compare the “case” group (one with a given case/outcome, such as a disease) and the controls without the “case”
cannot establish causation, but attempt to find correlations between past events and the current state
Between-subjects design
participants are randomly assigned to ONE experimental group in the study, while the other participants are assigned to another
Within-subjects design:
each participant is exposed to every level of the independent variable
two advantages of within-subjects design
- increased power (because the “number of participants” increases as each participant is used twice)
- a reduction in error variance associated with individual differences; each subject serves as their own control
social desirability bias
when respondents give answers that they believe will make them look good to others, concealing their true opinions or experiences
test-retest bias
when participants respond or behave differently if retested, based on information gained during the first test
researcher bias
when the researcher’s beliefs or expectations influence the research design or data collection process
attrition bias
when a participant drops out of a long-term study or experiment
kinship of affinity
one in which individuals are related by choice, such as through marriage, rather than through blood
relationship between fertility rate and mortality rate
increased lifespan comes at the cost of reduced fertility
not sure why but OK
anomie
a social condition in which there is a disintegration or disappearance of the norms and values that were previously common to the society
heterogeneity
a word that signifies diversity
availability heuristic/bias
the tendency people have to rely on information that is easier to recall or more immediately available to them when faced with a decision
negativity bias
happens when the negative aspects of a situation are focused upon, rather than the positive aspects
self-serving bias
when a person interprets events in a way to bolster self-esteem
hippocampus main function
memory
spatial navigation
pre-frontal cortex main function
modulates higher-order (executive) cognitive process
(reasoning, problem solving, comprehension, impulse-control, creativity, perseverance, etc.)
external validity
the extent to which the findings of a study are generalizable to a population as a whole
Typically, this involves issues regarding the size and representativeness of the sample
internal validity
the extent to which causal conclusions can be drawn from a study
were confounding variables accounted for?
face validity
the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed to assess what it is intended to assess
content validity
how well a measure/instrument/test assesses what researchers intend for it to assess
fMRI
full name
fuctional magnetic resonance imaging
fMRI
function / method
a variation of MRI that monitors blood flow and O2 consumption in the brain to identify areas of high activity
nucleus accumbens
the neural interface between motivation and action
an important component of the mesolimbic pathway (reward pathway)
MRI function
produces 3D images of structures within the body; does not indicate activity
amygdala
major processing center for emotions
links emotions to many other brain abilities (memories, learning, etc.)
white matter
brain
the axon bundles in the brain
provide communication between the different grey matter areas
grey matter
brain
areas where the actual “processing” is done
neuronal cell bodies and their dendrites
CT
full name
computerized tomography
CT scan
combines a series of X-ray images taken from different angles
images with horizontal slices of the brain are generated
relatively inexpensive
PET scan
full name
positron emission tomography
PET scan
can also examine brain function, mapping activity over time
uses radioactively tagged chemicals introduced in brain as markers of blood flow/metabolic activity
Provides color-coded map indicating which areas are active during certain stimuli
PONs function
part of your brainstem - many unconscious functions!
sleep-wake cycle, breathing, coordinates facial movements, hearing and balance
relays signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum
a sensory relay center for the thalamus and coordinates facial movements
a pathway for sensory information between the brain and the rest of the body
thinning
operant conditioning
reducing the frequency of rewards for a given action
fading
operant conditioning
reducing the frequency of prompts for a given action, until the promt is no longer needed
mediating variable
explains why two things are related
the independent variable leads to the mediating variable which leads to th independent variable
moderating variable
a variable that affects the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable
independent variable
the variable the is being controlled and altered to see how it affects another variable
dependent variable
the variable that we are observing to see how it is affected by the independent variable
confounding variable
a variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable
interference
in memory
a phenomenon in which some memories interfere with the retrieval of other memories
amnesia
memory loss
retrograde amnesia
can’t recall memories that were formed before the event that caused the amnesia
anterograde amnesia
a type of memory loss that occurs when you can’t form new memories
retrograde interference
when new memories or knowledge interfere with retrieval of old memories
proactive interference
when older memories inhibit the consolidation or retrieval of new memories
role strain
involves stress from too many demands within a single role
Competing demands within the same social role
role conflict
involves competing expectations between two roles held by same person
role exit
when an individual disengages from/leaves a role
inclusive fitness
the sum of direct (personal) fitness and indirect fitness of the organism
direct fitness
the number of offspring the individual procreates
indirect fitness
the number of offspring begotten by the genetic relatives of the individual
list the first 4 stages in order
trust vs mistrust
list the last 4 stages in order
identity vs confusion (teen age 12-18)
intimacy vs isolation (young adult age 18-40)
generativity vs stagnation (middle age 40-65)
integrity vs despair (
What stage is a senior in? (65+)
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
Integrity vs Despair
acetylcholine
in PNS, voluntary muscle control and parasympathetic nervous system
in CNS, linked to attention and arousal/alertness
dopamine
smooth movement and posture
pleasure- and reward-oriented behaviors
high concentrations in basal ganglia
Parkinson’s disease is typically caused by…
a loss of dopominergic neurons in the basal ganglia (in the substantia nigra)
Schizophrenia is typically caused by…
abnormally high levels of dopamine or an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
Alzheimer’s disease is typically caused by…
the loss of cholinergic neurons that produce acetylcholine
What is Korsakoff’s syndrome charecterized by?
confusion and memory loss
Korsakoff’s syndrome is caused by…
reduced levels of vitamin B1 (thiamine)
neurotransmitter agonist
simulate or enhance the regular effect of the neutrotransmitter
neurotransmitter antagonist
decrease or prevent the effect of the neurotransmitter
general adaptation syndrome
describes the body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress
It has three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
involves the nervous system and the endocrine system
three stages of general adaptation syndrome
alarm
resistance
exhaustion
activation-synthesis theory
the theory that dreams are just the brain trying to make sense of the random brain impulses that occur during our sleep
alarm stage of GAP
provides a burst of energy to help deal with the stressor
resistance stage of GAP
body attempts to “resist” or adapt to the stressor
exaustion stage of GAP
if the stressor does not go away, our body will be drained of the rquired physical, emotional, and mental resources to the point where your body is no longer able to cope with stress
house money effect
the theory that people tend to take on greater risk when reinvesting profit earned through an initial investment because the new money is not viewed as “their own money” anymore
the Gambler’s fallacy
when an individual falsely believes that a certain random event is less likely or more likely to happen based on the outcome of a previous event or series of events
the prisoners dilemma
a paradox in decision analysis in which two individuals acting in their own self-interests do not produce the optimal outcome
general strain theory
suggests that people who have experienced negative events feel negative emotions, which lead to negative behaviors
suggests that crime and bad behaviour is caused by the presence of negative emotions
anomie theory
says that individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society
social cognitive theory
says that people learn by watching and modelling others
if they see that someone is rewarded for a behavior, they are more likely to behave that way too
primary aging
the inevitable loss of function that occurs no matter what we do
secondary aging
the loss of function accelerated by lifestyle and other factors, such as diet and exercise
marginalization
when a person or groups of people are less able to do things or access basic services or opportunities than others
integration
in terms of culture
the process by which separate groups or cultures are combined into a unified society
sensory memory
memory that allows you to remember sensory information after the stimulation has ended
short-term memory
allows you to recall specific information for a brief period
longer lasting than sensory memory but shorter lasting than long-term memory
working memory
involves the immediate and small amount of information that a person actively uses as they perform cognitive tasks
long term memory
the storage of memories on a scale ranging from hours to years
episodic memory
the memory of past experiences or events
flashbulb memory
the phenomenon of having an extremely detailed and vivid memory of an important or emotional experience
semantic memory
general world knowledge that humans have accumulated throughout their lives
implicit memory
the unconscious and unintentional recall of experiences or abilities
includes procedural memory
procedural memory
memory of how to do different actions and skills
ex. tying your shoes
explicit memory
the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts
optogenetics
a technique that uses light to control neurons that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels
GABA
primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system
acetylcholine
in PNS, voluntary muscle control and parasympathetic nervous system
in CNS, linked to attention and arousal/alertness
epinephrine
also known as adrenaline
usually is secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systemically as a horome
norepinephrine
also known as noradrenaline
usually acts locally as a neurotransmitter
low levels are associated with depression, high levels are associated with anxiety and mania
serotonin
regulates mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming
too much serotonin might produce mania
too little serotonin might produce depression
glycine
a proteinogenic amino acid that also acts as an INHIBITORY neurotransmitter in the CNS
(by increasing chloride influce into the neuron to hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane)
glutamate
a proteinogenic amino acid that also acts as an EXCITATORY neurotransmitter in the CNS
lateral geniculate nucleus
a visual information relay center in the thalamus
detects and interprets information from the retina and passes it on to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe
parietal lobe function
contains the somatosensory cortex
integrates multiple inputs of sensory information, from spatial sense and navigation (proprioception) to temperature (thermoreceptors) and touch (mechanoreceptors)
subjective norms
determined by the perceived social pressure from others for an individual to behave in a certain manner and their motivation to comply with those people’s views
locus of control
the degree to which people believe that they, as opposed to external forces, have control over the outcome of events in their lives
can be either internal or external
confirmation bias
when a person seeks out or overemphasizes information that supports the beliefs they already hold
reciprical determinism
human behavior and personality are caused by the interaction of behavior, cognition, and environment
our cognition effects our behaviour, which affects our environment. but our environment can also effect our cognition or behaviour. they are ALL related and have effects on another.
positive reinforcement
add pleasant stimulus to increase positive behaviour
positive punishment
add stimulus to decrease bad behaviour/experience
taking advil to remove headache; getting out of bed to avoid alarm
negative reinforcement
remove something unpleasant to increase a behaviour
negative punishment
remove pleasant stimulus to decrease negative behaviour
taking a way TV time when a kid is bad
social loafing
a situation where an individual exerts less effort in a group setting than they would have independently/individually
deindividuation
when people lose their sense of self in a group
often leads to people acting in ways they wouldn’t if alone
think “mob mentality”
social facilitation
when people perform better in the presence of a group
formal sanction
written and have official consequences of obeying or disobeying the law
informal sanctions
any reaction a person might have to express approval or disapproval to an action regulated by norms
negative: shaming or ridicule
positive: applause
features of an ideal bureaucracy
(5)
are impersonal and rational
employees are specialized
have a hierarchical structure
have explicit rules that are often written down
promote employees based on their skills and abilities, not based on kinship, friendship, etc.
signal detection theory
explains the four possible reults when we make a decision when theres only 2 possible decisions to make
usually invovles discriminating between the presence or absence of a stimulus
motion parallax
a monocular depth cue that causes objects that are closer to you to appear to move faster than objects that are further away
feature detection
refers to the ability to detect motion, color, shape, timing, and size
divided attention
the ability to attend to multiple stimuli at the same time
