Blueprint FL1: C/P Flashcards
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hypertonic solutions
have lots of solute, little water
cause water to flow out of the cell into the solution
hypotonic solutions
have lots of water, little solute
cause water to flow from the solution into the cell
phase diagram
boiling point
the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a solution is equal to the atmospheric pressure above it
why is solid water less dense than liquid water
the lattice arrangement allows water molecules to be more spread out than in a liquid
degree of ionization
the proportion of neutral particles, such as those in a gas or aqueous solution, that are ionized
autoionization of water
a proton is transferred from one water molecule to another to produce a hydronium ion (H₃O⁺) and a hydroxide ion (OH⁻)
equilibrium equation
equilibrium expression for autoionization of water
london dispersion forces
the weaksest intermolecular force
results from the temporary dipoles as electrons move around in a nonpolar molecule
sulfite
sulfate
(fresh) water density
1g/mL
1kg/L
alpha decay
beta plus decay is also known as….
positron emission
beta plus decay
beta minus decay
positron definition
a particle with the same mass as an electron but with a positive charge
beta minus decay is also known as….
electron emission
gamma emission
no change in the mass or atomic number
mass number
number of protons and neutrons
atomic number
number of protons
gamma rays are a form of …
ionizing radiation
what makes a carbon chiral?
must have 4 unique groups attached
enantiomers
two molecules which are non superimposable mirror images of another
wedges and dashes are switched
mass spectrometry
used to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of molecules by breaking the molecules into smaller ion fragments
-oic acid is the suffix for which functional group?
carboxylic acids
aldehyde structure
carboxylate
the conjugate base of carboxylic acid
-al suffix
aldehyde
aqueous phase vs organic phasse
The aqueous phase contains water and other charged ions and species
The organic phase contains uncharged species and neutral compounds
extraction
when the components of mixture are soluble in two different types of solutions, we can mix them with these 2 solutions and allow them to separate; thus separating the 2 components of the mixture
Then we can evaporate the solvents to be left with the solid components of the original mixture
volatile meaning
describes how easily a substance will vaporize (turn into a gas or vapor)
high volatile substances are more likely to exist as a gas/vapour
distillation
the process of separating the components of a liquid mixture through selective evaporation and condensation
vacuum distillation
vacuum distillation lowers the pressure above the solution to lower the boiling point and allow for a quicker distillation
how do boiling chips prevent bumping
the chips trap air in cavities to form solvent vapor bubbles slowly and continuously as opposed to superheating and boiling at all once!
which molecules have higher boiling points?
smaller vs larger
larger
they have stronger IM forces that hold them together
which molecules have higher boiling points
polar vs nonpolar
polar
they have higher IM forces between the + and - parts of the molecules
hydrogen bonds
a dipole-dipole attraction between hydrogen atoms and very electronegative atoms, typically F, O, or N
donor and acceptor in hydrogen bonds
formal charge
valence electrons in nonbonded atom - (bonds + dots)
how to determine valence electrons on a non-bonded atom
conservation of eneregy
KE and PE
gravitational potential energy
kinetic energy
stereocenter
an atom which makes a molecule chiral
4 distinct groups attached
sp3 hybridized atoms
have 4 groups (bonds and lone pairs)
sp2 hybridized atoms
have 3 groups (bonds and lone pairs)
sp hybridized atoms
have 2 groups (bonds and lone pairs)
sp3 d2 hybridized atoms
have 6 groups (bonds or lone pairs)
sp3 d hybridized atoms
have 5 groups (bonds and lone pairs)
s hybridized atoms
have 1 group (1 bond)
what group on the periodic table have full valence shells
oxidation state
the total number of electrons which have been removed from or added to an element
torque equation
sin (90) = …
1
sin (180) = …
0
sin (0) = …
0
cos (0) = …
1
cos (45) = …
0
cos (180) = …
-1
average velocity
milli
10 ^ -3
1/1000
non competitive inhibitor
binds to an allosteric site to alter the active site so the substrate can no long binder
competitive inhibitor
bind to the active site of the enzyme to block substrate binding
uncompetitive inhibitor
bind to the enzyme-substrate complex (not the free enzyme)
competitive inhibition (km and vmax effects)
km is increased (lower affinity for substrate)
vmax is unaffacted
uncompetitive inhibition (km and vmax effects)
km is decreased (they increase binding affinity because it stabilizes the ES complex)
vmax is decreased
noncompetitive inhibition (km and vmax effect)
Km is unaffected
vmax is reduced
thiol
carboxyl group
pKa meaning
the pH at which a group will donate/lose a proton (H+ atom)
acid vs base
bronsted lowry (protons)
acids: donate protons (H+ atoms)
bases: accept protons (H+ atoms)
equivalence point
titration curve
the point in a titration where the amount of titrant added is enough to completely neutralize the analyte solution
tera (T)
a trillion
10^12
Giga (G)
a billion
10^9
Mega (M)
a million
10^6
Kilo (K)
a thousand
10^3
Deci (d)
1/10
10^-1
centi (c)
1/100
10^-2
milli (m)
1/1000
10^-3
micro (μ)
1/1,000,000
10^-6
nano (n)
1/1,000,000,000
10^-9
pico (p)
10^-12
Newton’s third law
for every action (force) in nature there is an equal and opposite reaction
inert meaning
a substance that is not chemically reactive
diatomic nitrogen in the atmosphere is inert in that…
the triple bond makes it very stable and unreactive
acetone structure
ideal bond angle: linear electron pair geometry
180 degrees
ideal bond angle: trigonal planar electron pair geometry
120 degrees
ideal bond angle: tetrahedral electron pair geometry
109.5 degrees
power formula
work / time
power unit
watts = joules / second
power of resistor
formula (x3)
power of resistor
meaning
the rate that energy is dissipated by the resistor
total resistance : resistors in parallel
total resistance: resistors in series
total voltage drop: resistors in series
the total voltage drop will be the sum of the voltage drop across all resistors
total voltage drop: resistors in parallel
the total voltage drop will equal the voltage drop at each individual resistor
oxidation vs reduction
reduction
in terms of hydrogens and oxygens
the addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen
oxidation
in terms of hydrogen and oxygen
the removal of hydrogen or addition of oxygen
KMnO4 (Potassium Permanganate)
oxidizing or reducing agent
oxidizing agent
will donate an oxygen, causing another substance to be oxidized
H2 with Pd
reagent
this is a very strong reducing agent, meaning it will add hydrogens wherever it can and turn all double bonds into single bonds
oxidizing vs reducing agent
oxidizing agents: cause other substance to be oxidized, are themselves reduced
reducing agents: cause other substance to be reduced, are themselves oxidized
list the steroid hormones (5)
testosterone, progesterone, estrogen, aldosterone, cortisol
lnsulin (hormone type)
peptide hormone
lyase
an enzyme that catalyzes the breaking of bonds
isomerase
an enzyme that converts a molecule from one isomer to another
transferase
an enzyme that transfers functional groups from one molecule to another
oxidoreductase
an enzyme that catalyzes redox reactions
infrared spectroscopy
used to determine functional groups in molecules
IR spectroscopy: fingerprint region
this is the area below (to the right of) 1500; unique to each molecule
IR spectroscopy: diagnostic / functional region
this is the area above (to the left of) 1500; the peaks tell you the functional groups present in your substance
carbonyl group wavenumer
IR spectroscopy
sharp peak around 1750
OH group wavelength
IR spectroscopy
broad peak around 3300
NH group wavelength
IR spectroscopy
broad peak around 3300
disulfide bridge
a link between thiol groups in two cysteine residues
thiol group
sulfide structure
Another name for thioether
chiral center
an atom attached to 4 distinct groups
reduction potential
the tendency of a chemical species to be reduced by electrons
reduction potential units
volts
A solution with a greater reduction potential than another species will …
have a greater affinity for electrons and tend to receive electrons from the other species
“H” in thermodynamics
enthalphy
“S” in thermodynamics
entropy
Gibb’s free energy
equation
spontaneous reactions
delta G
negative delta G
nonspontaneous reactions
delta G
positive delta G
delta H = +
delta S = +
spontaneous at high temperatures
delta H = +
delta S = -
non spontaneous
delta H = -
delta S = -
spontaneous at low temperatures
delta H = -
delta S = +
spontaneous
how do enzymes speed up reactions
by reducing the activation energy barrier
Keq
equilibrium constant
equilibrium constant equation
Keq > 1
greater than
higher concnetration of products than reactants at equilibrium
Keq < 1
less than
Higher concentration of reactants than products at equilibrium
Keq = 1
Equal concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium
standard free energy change
symbol
net standard free energy change for a multi-step reaction
this will be the sum of the standard free energy changes for each step of the reaction
ln (<1) = …
negative number
ln (>1) = …
positive number
l
ln (0) = …
undefined
you can only take the natural log of a number greater than 0
ln (<0) = …
indefined
you can only take the natural log of a number greater than 0
Gibb’s free energy equation
relationship between angle of incidence and angle of reflection
the two are always equal
refraction
the bending of the path of light as it passes from one material into another material
index of refraction
a dimensionless number that gives the indication of the light bending ability of that medium
total internal reflection
this is when light is refracted past the critical angle such that the light is redirected back into the original medium
critical angle
the angle of incidence where the angle of refraction is 90°, and thus the light runs along the interface between the two medium
Snell’s Law
critical angle
formula
just set the angle of refraction in snells law to 90, and sin 90 = 1
index of refraction of air
n = 1
if light is going from a medium with a lower index of refraction to a higher one, the light will …
bend towards the normal
total internal reflection can only result when…
a ray of light begins in a higher-index material and reaches a boundary with a lower-index one (ex. going from water to air)
phosphate structure
PO4 (3-)
phosphate charge
-3
if Keq of the forward reaction is x, Keq of the reverse reaction will be…
1 / X
alkoxide
the conjugate base of an alcohol
heat of formation
the amount of heat absorbed or released when one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements
enthalpy of formation
exothermic reaction
a reaction in which energy is released in the form of light or heat
endothermic reaction
a reaction in which energy (heat) is abosrbed from its surroundings into the system
∆H is negative
the reaction is exothermic - gives off heat
∆H is positive
endothermic - energy/heat is absorbed from surroundings into the system
delta H in thermodynamics
change in ENTHALPY
enthalpy
the total heat content of a system
equivalent to the system’s internal energy plus the product of volume and pressure
enthalpy
formula
Hess’s Law
the total enthalpy change for the reaction is the sum of all changes
The standard enthalpy of formation of any pure element in its standard state (ex. C, N2, O2, etc.) equals …
zero!
carbocations are very…
reactuve / unreactive
reactive!
they do not have a full octet and are thus very unstable
high entropy (s) value = …
high disorder!
force units
Newtons
resistor
a device that impedes the flow of charge in a circuit
galvanic/voltaic cell (battery)
an electrochemical cell in which an electric current is generated from spontaneous Oxidation-Reduction reactions
energy is being released
electrolytic cell
an electrochemical cell that utilizes an external source of electrical energy to drive a thermodynamically unfavourable reaction
capacitor
a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field by accumulating electric charges on two closely spaced surfaces that are insulated from each other
opaque
not see-through (oppsite of transparent)
at standard temperature, metals are …
solid
except mercury (liquid)
force of static friction
normal force of an object on an incline
normal force will equal perpendicular force mgcos theta
list the nucleotides in DNA
nucleotides in RNA
thymine is replaced with uracil
DNA base pairs always have ….
a purine paired with a pyrimidine
what are the purines
what are the pyrimidines
the adenine - thymine base pairs have … hydrogen bonds
two
the cysteine - guanine base pair has … hydrogen bonds
three
reduction
the addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen atoms from a compound
-ide suffix
A negatively charged molecule
