AAMC FL4 B/B Flashcards
cytochromes
redox-active proteins containing a heme, with a central Fe atom at its core, as a cofactor
the job of the cytochrome is to make drugs more polar/hydrophilic
catabolism involves the release of energy through ________ (reduction/oxidation) of the molecule
catabolism involves the release of energy through oxidation of the molecule
ex. beta oxidation for fatty acid metabolism, glycolysis and TCA cycle for glucose metabolism
anabolism involves the creation of ______ (high/low) energy molecules by _______ (reducing/oxidizing) them
anabolism involves the creation of high energy molecules by reducing them
ex. fatty acid synthesis and gluconeogenesis, both use energy by oxidizing high-energy molecules (ATP, NADPH)
carboxylase
adda carboxyl group to a molecule
where does phosphorylation occur? which amino acids can be phosphorylated?
phosphate groups can be added onto molecules with OH groups, by removal of the H (?)
on amino acids serine, threonine, and sometimes tyrosine !
isoelectric focusing
allows separation of the molecules based on their isoelectric point
recall: isoelectric point = the pH where the net charge is 0
ion exchange chromatography
separation of the molecules based on their charge
Gel filtration chromatography
Gel filtration chromatography separates protein only on the basis of their size
Native PAGE
Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)
separate molecules based on their electrophoretic mobility, relying on length, conformation, and charge.
a technique that uses non-denatured gels for the separation of proteins
Henry’s Law
the concentration of gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the solubility and partial pressure of that gas
isoelectric point
he pH of a solution at which the net charge of a protein becomes zero
Na+/K+ ATPase
pumps 3 Na out
pumps 2 K in
- (nah get out, k come in)*
- (out = 3 letters, in = 2 letters)*
phosphate group charge
-2
ester
ester linkage
phosphotransferase
catalyze phosphorylation reactions (transfer of a phosphate group)
where does fatty acid synthesis occur
cytoplasm
where does beta oxidation occur
mitochondria
fatty acid synthesis
1-Citrate leaves mitochondrial matrix, crosses double membrane layers, to cytosol
2-Citrate converted to acetyl CoA + OAA via enzyme citrate lyase
3-Acetyl CoA (2C) gets converted to malonyl CoA (3C) via enzyme ACC (acetyl CoA carboxylase) – rate limiting step
4-Malonyl CoA gets lengthened 2 C at a time via enzyme fatty acid synthase
5-Regulation: high insulin triggers fatty acid synthesis
6-Fatty acid + glycerol = triglycerides (stored in adipocyte cells)
fatty acid synthesis NET formula
transcription factor
has a DNA-binding domain that allows it to bind to regulatory nucleic acid sequences in a gene to alter transcription
giantism
due to excessive growth hormone (grows bones and muscles)
growth hormone
grows muscles and bones (not fat cells)
insulin levels raise when:
blood glucose levels are high
pull glucose from the blood into the cells
osmolarity in ileum after meal will _______ (increase/decrease)
increase
recall: high osmolarity = high solute concentration
2 components when engineering a vaccine
immunogenicity and toxicity
we want the vaccine to be part of the disease that will cause an immune response but NOT be toxic / cause a negative reaction
ex. the covid spikes
large vs small ribosomal subunit (eukaryotes)
large vs small ribosomal subunit (prokaryotes)
microRNA
a small single-stranded non-coding RNA molecule that functions in RNA silencing and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression
RT-PCR
combines reverse transcription of RNA into DNA and amplification of specific DNA targets using polymerase chain reaction
It is primarily used to measure the amount of a specific RNA.
Quantitative PCR
“polymerase chain reaction”
a technique that measures the levels of DNA in a sample
western, northern, southern blot
SNOW DROP
southern → DNA
northern → RNA
western → protein
heterochromatin vs euchromatin
heterochromatin: a tightly packed form of DNA or condensed DNA
euchromatin: the area of the chromosome which is rich in gene concentration and actively participates in the transcription process
blood pressure
systolic / diastolic
(pressure in arteries during contraction) / (pressure in arteries during relaxation)
negative control
a group in an experiment that does not receive any type of treatment and, therefore, should not show any change during the experiment
transfection
a procedure that introduces foreign nucleic acids into cells to produce genetically modified cells
skeletal muscle differentiation
a highly controlled, multistep process, during which single muscle cells initially freely divide and then align and fuse to form multinucleated myotubes
mesoderm →
3 primary germ layers
early central nervous system
myoblast
an undifferentiated cell capable of giving rise to muscle cells
bacterial growth phases
(exponential phase is also called the “log phase”)
how is excess water normally secrete (besides urine)
through the skin and lungs
where is water typically absorbed in the digestive system
the LARGE intestine (large)
humans carry approx. how much blood volume?
5 liters
B cells vs T cells
both are white blood cell lymphocytes
B cells → recognizes antigens and create antibodies
T cells → actually wipe out the infected cells
B cells
white blood cells (lymphocytes) with receptors that bind to antigens on the surface of pathogens or foreign substances
the antigen is engulfed into the B-cell (via receptor mediated endocytosis)
the B-cell breaks down the antigen and presents the pieces on its surface
helper T cells cause the B-cell to replicate itself and turn into plasma cells which produce antibodies
helper T cells
activate B cells
bind to major histocompatibility (MHC) II on B cells and causes release of lymphokines
cytotoxic T cell
all cells have MHC I on their membrane
the infected cells (now making viral proteins from viral DNA) present these viral proteins on its surface via the MHC I
the cytotoxic T cells recognize the presented protein as bad and initiate apoptosis
memory T cells
can replicate fast and initiate their response rapidly if they have encountered the antigen before
microglia
macrophages of the CNS; the first and main form of active immune defense in the CNS
they phagocytize many products in the brain
are T and B cells normally present in the CNS/brain?
NO
microglia are the immune cells of the brain and will recruit T and B cells if necessary
layers around the brain
desmosomes
intercellular junctions that provide strong adhesion between cells
“anchoring” junctions
found in tissues subject to stress (ex. heart muscle and skin)
tight junctions
impermeable junctions
prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space
gap junctions
allow for intercellular communication
allow ions and small molecules to pass directly to an adjacent cell
ex. found in electrical excitable cells like the heart
intercalated discs
specialized intercellular junctions between cardiac muscle cells that provide direct electrical coupling among cells
