All Terms For Phyc/Soc (5/26) Flashcards
1
Q
1 Cofounding variable
A
A variable that affects both the independent and dependent variable
EX) coffee drinkers are more common to develop heart disease. BUT, those coffee drinkers also smoked and thats what made the heart disease prevalent
2
Q
1 A mediating variable
A
A variable that explains the relationship between an independent and dependent variable
EX) people who have lower income experience cancer more frequently. The cancer does not check to see if someone has lower income first. So, scare food, lack of health care, explain why cancer is more popular in these populations
3
Q
1 A moderating variable
A
A variable that is a step between the relationship between independent and dependent
EX) People who have a stressful job tend to have anxiety. A moderating variable would be exercise or other healthy mechanisms to cope with the stress
4
Q
1 Experimental Studies
A
the researchers directly manipulate an independent variable
5
Q
1 Observational studies
A
Researchers carefully analyze pre-existing patterns of variation to obtain information on significant relationships
6
Q
1 Quantitative measures
A
Uses numbers to measure
7
Q
1 Qualitative measures
A
uses verbal or open-ended measures
8
Q
1 Cohort studies
A
Groups are organized based on a characteristic that is common
EX) age, gender
9
Q
1 Prospective analysis
A
Data is gathered moving forward
10
Q
1 Retrospective studies
A
Data is gathered looking back
11
Q
1 Internal validity
A
The extent to which we can draw causal conclusions from the study data. Did we manipulate the independent variable enough so that it changed the dependent?
12
Q
1 External validity
A
Extent to which we can generalize our results onto different experimental or life situations
13
Q
1 Test validity
A
Describes how well research design was able to test what it was intended to test
14
Q
1 Subtypes of test validity
A
Construct validity
Content validity- covers the full scope
Criterion validity
Predictive validity
15
Q
1 Reliability
A
Consistency
16
Q
1 Accuracy
A
How close to the actual/real measurements
17
Q
1 Self-reporting/ response bias
A
Allowing respondents to chose their own answers on a survey
18
Q
1 Social diserability
A
Respondents answer in a way that makes them look more socially successful
19
Q
1 Acquiescence bias
A
The tendency for a respondent to answer yes when they are asked a question
20
Q
2 Instinctual behaviors
A
Animals do not attend school, have symbolic culture, use language or many of these hard-coded behaviors shaped by genetics
21
Q
2 Epigenetics
A
Changes to the genome that do not involve changing actual nucleotide content
EX) methylation
22
Q
2 Pregnancy stages
A
First- major structures of fetus are formed
Second- details get filled in and the fetus grows
Third- involves growing and finalizing preparations for the outside world
23
Q
2 The Moro reflex
A
startle reflex that occurs in response to sudden movement or loud sounds
24
Q
2 Babinski reflex
A
unhealthy- baby’s foot is stroked and the big toe bends up and others toes fan out
25
2 Puberty
Reflects the changes that happen during adolescence (between child and adult)
26
2 Secondary sex characteristics
Develop during puberty
27
2 Telomeres and aging
They deteriorate. They usually protect them from losing nucleotides from DNA
28
2 Direct hormones of the endocrine system
Cause their target cells to make direct changes in some physiological function
29
2 Tropic hormones of the endocrine system
Cause other hormones to be released
30
2 Role of hypothalamus
converting input from the NS to the endocrine system
31
2 Role of anterior pituitary gland
Receives hypothalamic input
32
2 Role of posterior pituitary gland
Received hypothalamic input, but receives signals in form of neuronal rather than hormonal because it is composed of neurons itself
33
2 Thyroid gland and Parathyroid gland
Thyroid gland- releases thyroid hormones and this influences metabolism, but can also influence behavior
34
2 Adrenal glands
Adrenal cortex- secretes cortisol
| Adrenal medulla- secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine (acute stress responses)
35
2 Oxytocin
Promotes uterine contractions during labor
| Also called the cuddle hormones
36
2 Prolactin
Helps with lactation
37
2 Melatonin
Produced in the pineal gland in the brain that regulates wakefulness
38
2 Leptin and Ghrelin
Leptin- promotes feeling of satiety
| Ghrelin- hunger
39
2 Sensory neurons
carry information about stimuli to the CNS for processing are known as afferent neurons
40
2 Motor neurons
Carry signals to react from the CNS to the target cell are know as efferent neurons as they ELICIT THE EFFECT
41
2 Acetylcholine
Activating muscle contraction at the NMJ
42
2 Glutamate
Depolarizes postsynaptic neurons and pushes them closer to action potential threshold
43
2 GABA
inhibitory neurotransmitter and hyper-polarizes postsynaptic neurons to push them further away from the action potential threshold
44
2 Dopamine
reward pathway
| Loss from the substantia nigra can lead to Parkinson's disease
45
2 Seratonin
Regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and GI tract
46
2 Endorphins
supress pain and can produce a euphoric response
47
2 Cerebellum
make coordinated movement happen
48
2 Medulla oblongata
controls autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
49
2 Pons
relay station through which signals are transmitted between the cerebellum, medulla, and the rest of the brain
50
2 Mid brain
motor control, sleeping and waking, and temperature regulation
includes inferior and superior colliculi and substantia nigra
51
2 inferior and superior colliculi
helps with auditory and visual processing
52
2 Forebrain
Divided into the diencephalon which gives rise to the thalamus (relays sensory and motor signals), hypothalamus, pineal gland and posterior pituitary gland, and the telencephalon which gives rise to the cerebrum
53
2 Cerebrum
Divided into the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures-contains the olfactory bulb, basal ganglia, hypothalamus and hippocampus (part of limbic system)
54
2 Nucleus accumbens
involved in reward, motivation, and learning, implicated in addiction
55
2 Cerebral cortex
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe
56
2 Wernicke's area
Language comprehension
57
2 Broca's area
language production/actually speaking
58
2 EEGs
measure brain activity, can be used to identify different ages of sleep, but is bad at localizing
59
2 CT
X-ray photos that are 2D
60
2 MRI
use magnetic fields to image structures in the body
61
2 PET
radiolabels glucose to emit positron decay
62
2 fMRI
uses magnetic properties between oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin
63
3 Nociceptors
detect pain
64
3 baroreceptors
detect pressure, like blood pressure
65
3 Osmoreceptors
detect concentrations of solutes in blood and trigger responses
66
3 Proprioceptors
present in and around muscles, tendons, and joints
| Kinesthetic sense
67
3 Just noticeable difference
Smallest change in magnitude of a stimulus that we can perceive as being different
68
3 Weber's law
Being able to notice a difference
| EX) 10 to 11 pounds or 100 to 110 is 10%
69
3 Hit
bear perceived, bear actually there
70
3 False alarm
Bear perceived, bear not actually present
71
3 Miss
bear not perceived, bear actually there
72
3 Correct rejection
bear not perceived, bear not actually present
73
3 Principle of proximity
we perceive objects or shapes that are close to each other as forming groups
74
3 Principle of similarity
states objects that are similar in some way will be perceived as belonging to a group
75
3 Principle of good continuation
if multiple objects intersect or overlap, we tend to perceive them as relatively few uninterrupted objects
76
3 Principle of Closure
We infer the presence of complete shapes over even when they are incomplete
77
3 Principle of symmetry
symmetrical objects are more likely to be perceived of a whole than asymmetrical objects
78
3 Cones
responsible for perceiving fine detail and color
79
3 Rods
many more rods than cone
| contain rhodopsin which is a protein extremely sensitive to light
80
3 Pupil
lets light into the eye
81
3 Iris
controls size of pupil with dilator and constrictor pupillae
82
3 Ciliary muscle
adjusts lends via the suspensory ligaments
83
3 Anterior chamber
contains aqueous humor
84
3 Posterior chamber
contains vitreous humor
85
3 Choroid
supplies the retina with blood and absorbs excess light
86
3 Sclera
white color of the eye
87
3 conjunctiva
translucent film on cornea to keep eye lubricated
88
3 LGN
in thalamus and acts as the main relay station from the retinas and sends signals to the superior colliculus
89
3 Magnocellular and parvocelluar neurons
Magno- sense motion
| Parvo- sense detail
90
3 Magnocellular and parvocelluar neurons
Magno- sense motion
| Parvo- sense detail
91
Serial processing model
analyzing stimuli in order to find something
92
4 Reticular formation
and the reticular activating system play an important role in alertness
93
4 BATS Drink Blood
```
beta
alpha
theta: non-rem, stage 1
spindles + K-complexes- stage 2
delta
beta
```
94
4 cortisol
contributes to wakefullness
95
4 Melatonin
generated from the pineal gland that promotes drowsiness
96
4 Insomnia
Sleep disorder that makes it hard to fall asleep
97
4 Narcolepsy
Excessive daytime sleepiness, abnormal REM sleep, hallucinations, muscle control loss
98
4 Sleep apnea
Trouble breathing while sleeping
99
4 Parasomnias
abnormal behaviors during sleep like sleepwalking (somnambulism) or nightmares
100
4 Manifest content
refers to the plotline and details of the dream
101
4 Latent content
underlying reason for having a dream
102
4 Activation-synthesis model
activation of neurons in REM sleep results in a synthesis of that experimental input through dreaming
103
4 Problem-solving theory
views dreams as a way that the brain unconsciously processes and works through problems encountered in one's day-to-day life
104
4 Cognitive theory
dreams reflect cognitive structures that play a role in out everyday lives
105
4 Caffeine
stimulant to increase the activity of the CNS
106
4 Amphetamines
Stimulant. Adderall specifically, MDMA (ecstacy or molly), cocaine- blocks reuptake of serotonin and dopamine and norepi
107
4 Depressents
decreases activity of the CNS
108
4 Alcohol
Enhances GABA receptors
109
4 Korsakoff's syndrome
associated with chronic alcoholism
110
4 benzodiazepines and barbiturates
A drug created to help with anxiety and alcoholism, but has a high risk of overdose
111
4 Opioids
morphine or heroin
| endorphins- block pain
112
4 Hallucinogens
LSD
| distort perceptions and enhance sensory experiences
113
4 Marijuana
includes stimulant, hallucinogenic, and depressant activities
114
4 the reward pathway
More technically known as the mesolimbic system
115
4 Shadowing
subjects are asked to repeat words as soon as they hear them
116
4 Cocktail party effect
in a room with lots of people having a conversation and someone across the room says your name and you immediately notice
117
4 Inattentional blindness
When working on a focused task, we miss things happening in the background
118
4 Change blindness
Failure to notice changes that take place between two stimuli
119
4 simultaneous attention
paying attention to multiple things at once
120
4 Sequential attention
Rapidly switching back and fourth between tasks
121
4 Controlled processing
When we have to consciously focus on carrying out a task
122
5 Stages by Piaget: 1
Sensorimotor stage
birth-2 years
sensory input by engaging in motor activities
123
5 Object permanence
understanding that objects exist outside of one's perception- in other words that things don't just go away when you stop seeing them
124
5 Circular reactions
the repetition of something accidentally, like dropping a toy
125
5 Stranger anxiety
going from being open to strangers to strangers providing a sense of worry
126
5 Stages by Piaget: 2
preoperational stage: 2-7
concrete operational stage: 7-11
formal operational stage: later
127
5 the main components of the preoperational stage
egocentrism, lack of conversation, centration, and symbolic thought
128
5 assimilation
EX) seeing an animal that looks like a cow and functions like one, but is brown instead of black/white
so you preserve your schema by concluding that the animal must not be a cow
129
5 Accommodation
expand schema by acknowledging that cows can have additional colors
130
5 Fluid intelligence
problem-solving skills that can be applied to new situations without using an previously existing knowledge
131
5 Crystallized intelligence
reflects the ability to deploy one's knowledge and skills to solve problems
132
5 Algorithum
Problem-solving with fixed steps
133
5 Deductive reasoning
top-down: applying general principles to a specific situation
134
5 Inductive reasoning
Bottom up Processing: successive observations are extrapolated to identify general principles
135
5 Functional fixedness
only seeing objects use for what they are made for
136
5 Belief tendency
people's tendency to maintain their beliefs
137
5 Overconfidence
being too sure of oneself
138
5 Confirmation bias
occurs when we reason in a way that favors information that supports conclusions that we have already made or believe
139
5 Hindsight bias
Refers to our tendency to retrospectively view events as having been highly predictable even if it wasn't so simple in the moment
140
5 Causation bias
refers to our tendency to infer cause and effect relationships incorrectly
141
5 Heuristics
mental shortcuts
142
5 The representative heuristic
we make decisions based on what we consider to be the prototypical example of a catagory
143
5 Availability heuristic
involved being influenced by examples of a certain phenomenon
144
5 IQ: normal distribution
bell shape curve on a graph for a populations IQ score
145
5 Theory of multiple intelligence
musical, visual-spatial, verbal, logical-math, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
146
5 Phonetics
deals with the speech sounds that we produce, often on a level that does not consciously register with us speakers or contribute directly to meaning
147
5 Phonology
deals with how we structure and organize speech sounds in a way that do affect meaning as well as processes that affect such sounds
148
5 Morphology
field of study of how words are formed
| how we add "-or" or "-er"
149
5 Sematics
Specializes in meaning either of words or sentences
150
5 Pragmatics
The study of the non-literal meaning
| "Can you pass the salt?" its not asking if they have the ability to
151
5 Behaviorism
BF Skinner
| states that language is a learned behavior that develops in response to the environment
152
5 Sapir whorf hypothesis
language that we speak can shape our cognition
153
5 Arcuate fasciculus
how information goes from Wernickes to Broca's area. If damaged, leads to non-fluent aphasia
154
5 Auditory cortices
region in temporal lobe that handles language-related processing functions
155
6 Elkman's seven universal emotions
Happiness, surprise, sadness, fear, disgust, contempt, anger
156
6 James-Lange Theory
the physiological response occurs immediately after the stimulus which causes the emotional response
157
6 The Schachter-Singer Theory
We see a bear, have a physiological response, appraise that response in context, and then have a conscious emotion or behavior
158
6 The cannon-bard theory
After a stimulus, the physiological response (elevated heart rate for example) and emotional response in the brain happen simultaneously and separately and jointly lead to an emotional response
159
6 The Lazarus theory
We first label the situation as good or bad then experience a physiological response and a conscious emotion
160
6 Avoidance conflict
where we have to choose between two bad options
161
6 approach-approach conflict
Choosing between two good options
162
6 Approach avoidance conflict
one where you are dealing with a decision that has both upsides and downsides
163
6 double approach-avoidance conflict
choosing between two options that both have upsides and downsides
164
6 Learned helplessness
repeated exposure to stressors that one is unable to change or avoid can lead to this phenomenon
165
6 Chunking
a way we organize something to remember it
| EX) phone numbers
166
6 Sematic memory
refers to memory of specific pieces of information
| EX) names
167
6 Procedural memory (implicit)
refers to the memory of knowing how to do something
| EX) ride a bike
168
6 Episodic memory
Relates to memory of our experiences
169
6 Flashbulb memory
A very vivid memory, positive or negative
170
6 Eidetic memory
Photographic memory
171
6 Iconic memory
highly detailed visual image can remain in our perception for a brief period of time
172
6 Prospective memory
memories related to plans to do something in the future
173
6 Source monitoring errors
We have the information right and repeat it to someone else, but are incorrect about who relaid the information to us
174
6 Primacy effect
More likely to recall items at the beginning of a list
175
6 Recency effect
More likely to recall items that were said last in a list
176
6 Serial position effect
More likely to recall extremes in a list than the middle
177
6 Classical conditioning
Dog salivates at food
ring bell without food and show that dog does not react
associate ring of a bell with food
now, dog salivates at bell without the food even present
178
6 Unconditioned stimulus
The smell of the meat
179
6 Unconditioned response
Salivation
180
6 Conditioned stimulus
the bell goes from neutral stimulus to this
181
6 conditioned response
becomes salivation
182
6 extinction/havituation
stopping the stimuli can make the effects go away
| dishabituation- intervening stimulus can re-sensitize to make response return
183
7 Intrinsic personality
Comes from within ones self
184
7 Extrinsic personality
Comes from outside oneself
| Like some type of reward
185
7 Instincts
Hard-wired, fixed behavior patterns that are somewhat more complex than reflexes, are perhaps the simplest level of motivation
186
7 Drive Reduction Theory
we are motivated by our drives to act in ways that resolve uncomfortable discrepancies between out current state and a state of homeostasis
187
7 Primary drives
EX) hunger, thirst, need to avoid extreme heat or cold
188
7 Secondary drives
Less basic
| EX) desire for recognition, a good career that looks socially acceptable
189
7 Maslow's pyramid
Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization
190
7 Physiological from Maslow's
breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
191
7 Safety from Maslow's
Security of body, employment, resources, morality, the family, health
192
7 Love/belonging from Maslow's
Friendship, family, sexual intimacy
193
7 Esteem from Maslow's
Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others and by others
194
7 Self-actualization of Maslow's
Morality, creativity, problem solving, lack of prejudice
195
7 Psychological arousal
Alertness and engagedness
196
7 The incentive theory of motication
humans respond rationally to external incentives
197
7 Expectancy-value theory
motivation reflects a balance between expectancies and values
198
7 Self-determination theory
focuses on the need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness
199
7 Opponent-process theory
a certain experience initially provokes an intense reaction of one form or another as the experience continues over time, the opposite reaction tends to predominate
200
7 components of attitude
Affective, behavioral, and cognitive
201
7 Foot-in-the-door technique
Having someone agree to a small request to then introduce a large request
202
7 Cognitive dissonance
unhealthy behaviors that are addictive
203
7 elaboration likelihood model
central route- making a rational decision based on a consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of choices
Peripheral route- make decisions based on gut reactions
204
7 Erikon's stages of development
```
trust v mistrust
autonomy v shame
initiative v guilt
industry v inferiority
identity v role confusion
intimacy v isolation
generativity v stagnation
integrity v despair
```
205
7 Kohlberg stages of moral development
```
pre-conventional= childhood (obedience, self-interest)
conventional= adolescence (conformity, law-and-order)
post-conventional= not everyone gets to this stage (social contract, universal human ethics)
```
206
7 Sigmund Frued and personality
id- unconscious urges
ego- interacts with the world and makes decisions
superego- what we are supposed to do, the ideal version of ourselves
207
7 sublimation
refers to the redirection of desires that are felt to be unacceptable or inappropriate into another behavior
208
7 Rationalization
coming up with excuses
209
7 Supression
conscious attempts to disregard uncomfortable feelings
210
7 oral stage
infants get pleasure from feeding and exploring the world through their mouths
211
7 anal stage
children learn to control bladder
| -anal retentive or anal expulsive
212
7 Phallic stage
children learn their own private parts
213
7 Latency phase
sexual urges enter dormancy
214
7 Genital stage
normal sexual relationships, given previous stages have been resolved
215
7 Carl Jung
agreed with Freud for the most part, but believed in collective unconscious- persona, shadow, anima
216
7 BF Skinner
behaviorism
217
7 Carl Rogers
Unconditional positive regard
| therapist accepts clients and show care
218
7 The theories of personalities "big five"
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
219
7 Hans and Sybil Eysenck
PEN model
| psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism
220
7 Myers-briggs type inventory
INTP
| introverted, intuition, thinking, perceiving
221
7 Reciprocal determinism
interrelationships between our behaviors, choices, and personalities
222
7 George Herbert Mead
```
"I'= our internal selves
"me"= version of us that the environment reflects back on us
```
223
8 Major depressive disorder
defined by one depressive episode which is a two week period including 5 or more of the following symptoms: lack of interest in things, extreme sadness, weight changes, sleep changes, appetite loss
224
8 Bipolar disorder
depressive and manic episodes
225
8 Bipolar I
more mania than depression
226
8 Bipolar II
more depression with less mania
227
8 Bipolar disorder
hypomania and even less depression than bipolar II
228
8 Somatic disorder
refers to an excessive preoccupation or focus on a physical symptom
229
8 Conversion disorder
physical symptoms involving the impairment of sensory of voluntary motor function that do not appear to have a biological cause- usually happens after high-stress events
230
8 Dissociative amnesia
a form of retrograde where people lose episodic memories about their own lives
231
8 Schizophrenia
can have positive or negative symptoms- how emotion is expressed
hallucinations
delusions
disorganized behavior and thought
232
8 Cluster A personality disorders
Paranoid personality disorder- high level of distrust towards others
Schizoid personality disorder- marked preference for solitude
Schizotypal disorder- discomfort in social settings with delusions
233
8 Cluster B personality disorders
Antisocial personality disorder- often manifests in violence and lack of remorse
Narcissistic personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder- attention seeking
Borderline personality disorder- unstable and intense emotions
234
8 Cluster C personality disorders
Avoidant personality disorder- hypersensitive to criticism
Dependent personality disorder
obsessive- compulsive personality disorder- extensive concern with rules, orderliness
235
8 Schizophrenia biologically
excess levels of neurotransmitters dopamine
236
8 Depression biologically
deficiency in serotonin and dopamine
| selective serotonin reuptakers inhibitors help to boost serotonin in brain
237
9 Social facilitation
we perform better with group tasks when the arousal is high
238
9 Yerkes-Dodson law
U shape graph about low to high stress tasks relation to performance
239
9 Social loafing
Working less hard in a group because other people will pick up the slack
240
9 Bystander effects
People's tendency to not offer help to someone in distress if other bystanders are present
241
9 Deindividuation
people tend to lose their sense of self-awareness in a large group setting because of high arousal and low degree of perceived responsibility
242
9 Anonymity
sense that no one will know what you do in a crowd
| EX) mods
243
9 Diffused responsibility
sense that you're not really responsible for what happened
244
9 Group polarization
tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial positions of the individual group members
245
9 Informational influence
in a group discussion, people are more likely to express points of view with the dominant viewpoint
246
9 Normative influence
desire to be socially accepted
247
9 Groupthink
irrational decisions are made within a group due to pressure towards harmony
248
9 Janis' either factors of groupthink
```
collective rationalization
excessive stereotyping
illusion of invulnerability
illusion of morality
illusion of unanimity
mindguards
pressure on dissenters
self-censorship
```
249
9 Conformity
Someone's beliefs changes to line up with the perspectives of others
250
9 Convergence
when someone's beliefs just happen to line up with others
251
9 Solomon Asch experiment
a group in on the experiment reported a wrong answer and other people, who did not know what was happening, went with that wrong answer
252
9 Door-in-the-face technique
make a large request that you know will be rejected then ask a smaller one
253
9 Low-ball technique
offering something at a low price only to raise it last minuet after the buyer is already invested in the purchase
254
9 Milgram experiment
Experimenter, teacher, and learner
| see if someone will inflict pain on someone else in response to direct instructions
255
9 Formal norms
laws written down
256
9 Informal norms
laws not written down with consequences for violating them
257
9 Folkways
insignificant informal norms with little to no penalty for violating them
258
9 Mores
EX) cheating or being a jerk
259
9 Taboos
most restrictive norms like cannibalism or incest
260
9 Sanctions
refers to any punishment for violating a social norm and a reward for following
261
9 Emile Durkheim
coined the term anomie which refers to a situation in which there is no longer a good match between society's stated norms and the norms individuals respond to
262
9 Differential association theory
deviance of behavior that is learned socially
263
9 Symbolic interactionist
behaviors as learned things with culturally determined significance
264
9 Labeling approach
focuses on how people's behaviors is affected by being label as deviant
265
9 Strain theory
looks at why people engage in deviant behaviors
General strain theory- people who experience social or economic hardships may have negative emotional experiences that push them to be more deviant
266
9 Dispositional attribution
explains behavior in terms of being something internal, or inherent to his disposition or character
EX) he broke my pencil because he is mean
267
9 Actor-observer bias
we are more likely to make dispositional attributions for someone else, but situational for us
268
9 Fundamental attribution bias
only applies/considers others. they are dispostional
269
9 the halo effect
how positive or negative experiences of someone in one domain can affect our view of them in another domain
270
9 The just-world hypothesis
good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
271
9 Prejudice
refers to the irrational attitudes, good or bad, to various groups or even objects
272
9 Stereotype content model
paternalistic- high warm, low competence: low status and no threat
Admiration- high warm, high competence: high status and no threat
contemptuous- low warm, low competence: low status and high threat
envious- low warm, high competence: high status and high threat
273
9 prejudice, stereotypes, and doscrimmination
```
prejudice= an affective or emotional response
stereotype= cognitive phenomenon
discrimination= actions or outcomes based on prejudices
```
274
10 Emotional signals
couched in even very small changes in physical stimuli
275
10 Social sanctions
certain patterns of emotional expression can be indexed to gender
276
10 Verbal communication
literal words that we say
277
10 Nonverbal communication
tone of voice, eye contact, body language, etc
278
10 Self-presentation
how we envision our authentic self and on how we think it will be advantageous to appear in a certain situation
279
10 Self-disclosure
refers to what you disclose to others about yourself
280
10 Managing appearances
how you groom yourself, how you dress, how you act
281
10 Ingratiation
another word for "sucking up"
282
10 Aligning actions
refers to presenting your actions in a light to make them seem more appealing
283
10 Altercasting
flips the focus onto other people
284
10 Goffman's front and back stage self
front stage= how we present ourselves to an audience
| back stage= more authentic self when we are not in front of an audience
285
10 Mere exposure effect
we eventually develop a preference for familiar people and things
286
10 Secure attachment
feels distress when caregiver leaves but adjusts to the circumstances knowing the caregiver will return
287
10 Ambivalent attachment
distress when caregiver leaves and mixed or unclear response upon return
288
10 Avoidant attachment
Does not care when caregiver leaves or returns
| may mean neglect
289
10 Disoriented attachment
contradictory or confused behavior upon return
| may mean abuse
290
10 Altruism
Refers to helping other people at some cost to yourself, even if only terms of time and energy
291
10 Foraging
How animals search for food
292
10 Game theory
a branch of applied mathematics that deals with decision-making under circumstances of incomplete information where there are other actors who are making similar choices, like in a game
293
10 Prisoner's Dilemma
when a criminal needs to testify against another criminal to go free. both denounce each other to get lighter sentence, or both keep quiet to get long sentence
294
10 Race
based off of physical characteristics
295
10 Symbolic ethnicity
refers to contexts where people invoke ethnic identity under specific and limited circumstances
296
10 looking-glass self
Our perceptions of how other people see us shape how we see ourselves
297
10 Self-concept
how we perceive ourselves
298
10 Self-schemas
impact our behaviors in that we intend to act in the way that is consistent with our self-schemas
299
10 Self-verification
we seek to have others perceived us according to how we perceive ourselves
300
11 Achieved status
A status that a person works for to obtain
| EX) doctor
301
11 Ascribed status
Come from outside of ourselves
302
11 Master status
Status is so dominant it crowds other traits
| EX) celebrities
303
11 Role conflict
Experiencing difficulty maintaining multiple roles
304
11 Role exit
Process one goes through when disengaging from a role
305
11 Role engulfment
Occurs when a role expands to dominate someone's life
306
11 Primary groups
long-lasting, deep bonds
307
11 Secondary groups
short lasting and superficial
308
11 Reference groups
Groups we compare ourselves to
309
11 dyads and triads
groups of two tend to be less stable than groups of three
310
11 Social network analysis
researchers can apply various mathematical techniques to analyze the connections among people in networks
311
11 Formal organizations
Defined rules for entering and exiting the organization and organization continues to exist even when current members are long gone
312
11 Coercive organization
you do not choose to be a part of, but you have to anyway
| EX) prison
313
11 Normative organizations
organizations people join because of a shared ideal or ethical goal
314
11 Utilitarian organizations
organizations people join to make money or be compensated in a direct way
315
11 Iron law of oligarchy
any organization with democratic decision making will wind up being dominated by a smaller group of decision makers
316
11 McDonaldization
refers to the focus on efficiency, calculability, uniformity, and technological control
317
11 Emile Durkheim's functinalism
manifest- what the function is supposed to do
| latent- unintended functions (usually positive) while dysfunctional is usually negative
318
11 Conflict theory
competition between different groups or structures for resources and the conflicts that arise in the process
319
11 Symbolic interactionism
How people interact using symbols
| page 201
320
11 Social constructionism
points out the meaning of social structure or concept emerges from how we think about those concepts and communicate with each other about them
EX) Thanksgiving
321
11 Rational choice theory
people have certain preferences or goals, and then chose actions based on the pros and cons of various possible choices in a way that maximizes the likelihood of satisfying the preferences
322
11 Social exchange theory
views social interactions as involving interchanges with costs and rewards
323
11 Principles of medical ethics
beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient, autonomy and justice
324
12 Value
how the world should be, how we should act
325
12 subcultures
groups of people within a larger cultural framework with additional practices, norms, or values
326
12 Culture lag
delay between changes, like technology, happening and cultural integration
327
12 Culture shock
Disorienting experience of immersion of a new culture
328
12 Assimilation
Integration into the predominent culture
329
12 Cultural transmission
cultural elements transferred over time
330
12 Diffusion
transfer between different cultures
331
12 Generations
```
GI generation
Silent generation 1925-45
Baby boomers 1945-65
Gen X 1965-82
Millennials 1982-2002
Gen Z 2002-10
Generation alpha 2010- present
```
332
12 Racialization
imposing a racial identity
333
12 Racial formation theory
using racialization for political or social goals
334
12 Demographic transition model
high death and birth
less death and high birth
slowly less death and rapidly less birth
low death and birth
335
12 Prevalence
how many people in a population have a condition
336
12 Incidence
how many people get the condition over a given frame in a population
337
12 Intergenerational
The ability for successive generations rise or fall in status or class
338
12 Intragenerational
Events within a person's lifetime that changes his or her status
339
12 Vertical mobility
a rise or fall in income
340
12 Horizontal mobility
keeping the same income, but in a different occupation (or no occupation)
