All Terms For Phyc/Soc (5/26) Flashcards
1 Cofounding variable
A variable that affects both the independent and dependent variable
EX) coffee drinkers are more common to develop heart disease. BUT, those coffee drinkers also smoked and thats what made the heart disease prevalent
1 A mediating variable
A variable that explains the relationship between an independent and dependent variable
EX) people who have lower income experience cancer more frequently. The cancer does not check to see if someone has lower income first. So, scare food, lack of health care, explain why cancer is more popular in these populations
1 A moderating variable
A variable that is a step between the relationship between independent and dependent
EX) People who have a stressful job tend to have anxiety. A moderating variable would be exercise or other healthy mechanisms to cope with the stress
1 Experimental Studies
the researchers directly manipulate an independent variable
1 Observational studies
Researchers carefully analyze pre-existing patterns of variation to obtain information on significant relationships
1 Quantitative measures
Uses numbers to measure
1 Qualitative measures
uses verbal or open-ended measures
1 Cohort studies
Groups are organized based on a characteristic that is common
EX) age, gender
1 Prospective analysis
Data is gathered moving forward
1 Retrospective studies
Data is gathered looking back
1 Internal validity
The extent to which we can draw causal conclusions from the study data. Did we manipulate the independent variable enough so that it changed the dependent?
1 External validity
Extent to which we can generalize our results onto different experimental or life situations
1 Test validity
Describes how well research design was able to test what it was intended to test
1 Subtypes of test validity
Construct validity
Content validity- covers the full scope
Criterion validity
Predictive validity
1 Reliability
Consistency
1 Accuracy
How close to the actual/real measurements
1 Self-reporting/ response bias
Allowing respondents to chose their own answers on a survey
1 Social diserability
Respondents answer in a way that makes them look more socially successful
1 Acquiescence bias
The tendency for a respondent to answer yes when they are asked a question
2 Instinctual behaviors
Animals do not attend school, have symbolic culture, use language or many of these hard-coded behaviors shaped by genetics
2 Epigenetics
Changes to the genome that do not involve changing actual nucleotide content
EX) methylation
2 Pregnancy stages
First- major structures of fetus are formed
Second- details get filled in and the fetus grows
Third- involves growing and finalizing preparations for the outside world
2 The Moro reflex
startle reflex that occurs in response to sudden movement or loud sounds
2 Babinski reflex
unhealthy- baby’s foot is stroked and the big toe bends up and others toes fan out
2 Puberty
Reflects the changes that happen during adolescence (between child and adult)
2 Secondary sex characteristics
Develop during puberty
2 Telomeres and aging
They deteriorate. They usually protect them from losing nucleotides from DNA
2 Direct hormones of the endocrine system
Cause their target cells to make direct changes in some physiological function
2 Tropic hormones of the endocrine system
Cause other hormones to be released
2 Role of hypothalamus
converting input from the NS to the endocrine system
2 Role of anterior pituitary gland
Receives hypothalamic input
2 Role of posterior pituitary gland
Received hypothalamic input, but receives signals in form of neuronal rather than hormonal because it is composed of neurons itself
2 Thyroid gland and Parathyroid gland
Thyroid gland- releases thyroid hormones and this influences metabolism, but can also influence behavior
2 Adrenal glands
Adrenal cortex- secretes cortisol
Adrenal medulla- secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine (acute stress responses)
2 Oxytocin
Promotes uterine contractions during labor
Also called the cuddle hormones
2 Prolactin
Helps with lactation
2 Melatonin
Produced in the pineal gland in the brain that regulates wakefulness
2 Leptin and Ghrelin
Leptin- promotes feeling of satiety
Ghrelin- hunger
2 Sensory neurons
carry information about stimuli to the CNS for processing are known as afferent neurons
2 Motor neurons
Carry signals to react from the CNS to the target cell are know as efferent neurons as they ELICIT THE EFFECT
2 Acetylcholine
Activating muscle contraction at the NMJ
2 Glutamate
Depolarizes postsynaptic neurons and pushes them closer to action potential threshold
2 GABA
inhibitory neurotransmitter and hyper-polarizes postsynaptic neurons to push them further away from the action potential threshold
2 Dopamine
reward pathway
Loss from the substantia nigra can lead to Parkinson’s disease
2 Seratonin
Regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and GI tract
2 Endorphins
supress pain and can produce a euphoric response
2 Cerebellum
make coordinated movement happen
2 Medulla oblongata
controls autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
2 Pons
relay station through which signals are transmitted between the cerebellum, medulla, and the rest of the brain
2 Mid brain
motor control, sleeping and waking, and temperature regulation
includes inferior and superior colliculi and substantia nigra
2 inferior and superior colliculi
helps with auditory and visual processing
2 Forebrain
Divided into the diencephalon which gives rise to the thalamus (relays sensory and motor signals), hypothalamus, pineal gland and posterior pituitary gland, and the telencephalon which gives rise to the cerebrum
2 Cerebrum
Divided into the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures-contains the olfactory bulb, basal ganglia, hypothalamus and hippocampus (part of limbic system)
2 Nucleus accumbens
involved in reward, motivation, and learning, implicated in addiction
2 Cerebral cortex
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe
2 Wernicke’s area
Language comprehension
2 Broca’s area
language production/actually speaking
2 EEGs
measure brain activity, can be used to identify different ages of sleep, but is bad at localizing
2 CT
X-ray photos that are 2D
2 MRI
use magnetic fields to image structures in the body
2 PET
radiolabels glucose to emit positron decay
2 fMRI
uses magnetic properties between oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin
3 Nociceptors
detect pain
3 baroreceptors
detect pressure, like blood pressure
3 Osmoreceptors
detect concentrations of solutes in blood and trigger responses
3 Proprioceptors
present in and around muscles, tendons, and joints
Kinesthetic sense
3 Just noticeable difference
Smallest change in magnitude of a stimulus that we can perceive as being different
3 Weber’s law
Being able to notice a difference
EX) 10 to 11 pounds or 100 to 110 is 10%
3 Hit
bear perceived, bear actually there
3 False alarm
Bear perceived, bear not actually present
3 Miss
bear not perceived, bear actually there
3 Correct rejection
bear not perceived, bear not actually present
3 Principle of proximity
we perceive objects or shapes that are close to each other as forming groups
3 Principle of similarity
states objects that are similar in some way will be perceived as belonging to a group
3 Principle of good continuation
if multiple objects intersect or overlap, we tend to perceive them as relatively few uninterrupted objects
3 Principle of Closure
We infer the presence of complete shapes over even when they are incomplete
3 Principle of symmetry
symmetrical objects are more likely to be perceived of a whole than asymmetrical objects
3 Cones
responsible for perceiving fine detail and color
3 Rods
many more rods than cone
contain rhodopsin which is a protein extremely sensitive to light
3 Pupil
lets light into the eye
3 Iris
controls size of pupil with dilator and constrictor pupillae
3 Ciliary muscle
adjusts lends via the suspensory ligaments
3 Anterior chamber
contains aqueous humor
3 Posterior chamber
contains vitreous humor
3 Choroid
supplies the retina with blood and absorbs excess light
3 Sclera
white color of the eye
3 conjunctiva
translucent film on cornea to keep eye lubricated
3 LGN
in thalamus and acts as the main relay station from the retinas and sends signals to the superior colliculus
3 Magnocellular and parvocelluar neurons
Magno- sense motion
Parvo- sense detail
3 Magnocellular and parvocelluar neurons
Magno- sense motion
Parvo- sense detail
Serial processing model
analyzing stimuli in order to find something
4 Reticular formation
and the reticular activating system play an important role in alertness
4 BATS Drink Blood
beta alpha theta: non-rem, stage 1 spindles + K-complexes- stage 2 delta beta
4 cortisol
contributes to wakefullness
4 Melatonin
generated from the pineal gland that promotes drowsiness
4 Insomnia
Sleep disorder that makes it hard to fall asleep
4 Narcolepsy
Excessive daytime sleepiness, abnormal REM sleep, hallucinations, muscle control loss
4 Sleep apnea
Trouble breathing while sleeping
4 Parasomnias
abnormal behaviors during sleep like sleepwalking (somnambulism) or nightmares
4 Manifest content
refers to the plotline and details of the dream
4 Latent content
underlying reason for having a dream
4 Activation-synthesis model
activation of neurons in REM sleep results in a synthesis of that experimental input through dreaming
4 Problem-solving theory
views dreams as a way that the brain unconsciously processes and works through problems encountered in one’s day-to-day life
4 Cognitive theory
dreams reflect cognitive structures that play a role in out everyday lives
4 Caffeine
stimulant to increase the activity of the CNS
4 Amphetamines
Stimulant. Adderall specifically, MDMA (ecstacy or molly), cocaine- blocks reuptake of serotonin and dopamine and norepi
4 Depressents
decreases activity of the CNS
4 Alcohol
Enhances GABA receptors
4 Korsakoff’s syndrome
associated with chronic alcoholism
4 benzodiazepines and barbiturates
A drug created to help with anxiety and alcoholism, but has a high risk of overdose
4 Opioids
morphine or heroin
endorphins- block pain
4 Hallucinogens
LSD
distort perceptions and enhance sensory experiences
4 Marijuana
includes stimulant, hallucinogenic, and depressant activities
4 the reward pathway
More technically known as the mesolimbic system
4 Shadowing
subjects are asked to repeat words as soon as they hear them
4 Cocktail party effect
in a room with lots of people having a conversation and someone across the room says your name and you immediately notice
4 Inattentional blindness
When working on a focused task, we miss things happening in the background
4 Change blindness
Failure to notice changes that take place between two stimuli
4 simultaneous attention
paying attention to multiple things at once
4 Sequential attention
Rapidly switching back and fourth between tasks
4 Controlled processing
When we have to consciously focus on carrying out a task
5 Stages by Piaget: 1
Sensorimotor stage
birth-2 years
sensory input by engaging in motor activities
5 Object permanence
understanding that objects exist outside of one’s perception- in other words that things don’t just go away when you stop seeing them
5 Circular reactions
the repetition of something accidentally, like dropping a toy
5 Stranger anxiety
going from being open to strangers to strangers providing a sense of worry
5 Stages by Piaget: 2
preoperational stage: 2-7
concrete operational stage: 7-11
formal operational stage: later
5 the main components of the preoperational stage
egocentrism, lack of conversation, centration, and symbolic thought
5 assimilation
EX) seeing an animal that looks like a cow and functions like one, but is brown instead of black/white
so you preserve your schema by concluding that the animal must not be a cow
5 Accommodation
expand schema by acknowledging that cows can have additional colors
5 Fluid intelligence
problem-solving skills that can be applied to new situations without using an previously existing knowledge
5 Crystallized intelligence
reflects the ability to deploy one’s knowledge and skills to solve problems
5 Algorithum
Problem-solving with fixed steps
5 Deductive reasoning
top-down: applying general principles to a specific situation
5 Inductive reasoning
Bottom up Processing: successive observations are extrapolated to identify general principles
5 Functional fixedness
only seeing objects use for what they are made for
5 Belief tendency
people’s tendency to maintain their beliefs
5 Overconfidence
being too sure of oneself
5 Confirmation bias
occurs when we reason in a way that favors information that supports conclusions that we have already made or believe
5 Hindsight bias
Refers to our tendency to retrospectively view events as having been highly predictable even if it wasn’t so simple in the moment
5 Causation bias
refers to our tendency to infer cause and effect relationships incorrectly
5 Heuristics
mental shortcuts
5 The representative heuristic
we make decisions based on what we consider to be the prototypical example of a catagory
5 Availability heuristic
involved being influenced by examples of a certain phenomenon
5 IQ: normal distribution
bell shape curve on a graph for a populations IQ score
5 Theory of multiple intelligence
musical, visual-spatial, verbal, logical-math, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
5 Phonetics
deals with the speech sounds that we produce, often on a level that does not consciously register with us speakers or contribute directly to meaning
5 Phonology
deals with how we structure and organize speech sounds in a way that do affect meaning as well as processes that affect such sounds
5 Morphology
field of study of how words are formed
how we add “-or” or “-er”
5 Sematics
Specializes in meaning either of words or sentences
5 Pragmatics
The study of the non-literal meaning
“Can you pass the salt?” its not asking if they have the ability to
5 Behaviorism
BF Skinner
states that language is a learned behavior that develops in response to the environment
5 Sapir whorf hypothesis
language that we speak can shape our cognition
5 Arcuate fasciculus
how information goes from Wernickes to Broca’s area. If damaged, leads to non-fluent aphasia
5 Auditory cortices
region in temporal lobe that handles language-related processing functions
6 Elkman’s seven universal emotions
Happiness, surprise, sadness, fear, disgust, contempt, anger
6 James-Lange Theory
the physiological response occurs immediately after the stimulus which causes the emotional response
6 The Schachter-Singer Theory
We see a bear, have a physiological response, appraise that response in context, and then have a conscious emotion or behavior
6 The cannon-bard theory
After a stimulus, the physiological response (elevated heart rate for example) and emotional response in the brain happen simultaneously and separately and jointly lead to an emotional response
6 The Lazarus theory
We first label the situation as good or bad then experience a physiological response and a conscious emotion
6 Avoidance conflict
where we have to choose between two bad options
6 approach-approach conflict
Choosing between two good options
6 Approach avoidance conflict
one where you are dealing with a decision that has both upsides and downsides
6 double approach-avoidance conflict
choosing between two options that both have upsides and downsides
6 Learned helplessness
repeated exposure to stressors that one is unable to change or avoid can lead to this phenomenon
6 Chunking
a way we organize something to remember it
EX) phone numbers
6 Sematic memory
refers to memory of specific pieces of information
EX) names
6 Procedural memory (implicit)
refers to the memory of knowing how to do something
EX) ride a bike
6 Episodic memory
Relates to memory of our experiences
6 Flashbulb memory
A very vivid memory, positive or negative
6 Eidetic memory
Photographic memory
6 Iconic memory
highly detailed visual image can remain in our perception for a brief period of time
6 Prospective memory
memories related to plans to do something in the future
6 Source monitoring errors
We have the information right and repeat it to someone else, but are incorrect about who relaid the information to us
6 Primacy effect
More likely to recall items at the beginning of a list
6 Recency effect
More likely to recall items that were said last in a list
6 Serial position effect
More likely to recall extremes in a list than the middle
6 Classical conditioning
Dog salivates at food
ring bell without food and show that dog does not react
associate ring of a bell with food
now, dog salivates at bell without the food even present
6 Unconditioned stimulus
The smell of the meat
6 Unconditioned response
Salivation
6 Conditioned stimulus
the bell goes from neutral stimulus to this
6 conditioned response
becomes salivation
6 extinction/havituation
stopping the stimuli can make the effects go away
dishabituation- intervening stimulus can re-sensitize to make response return
7 Intrinsic personality
Comes from within ones self
7 Extrinsic personality
Comes from outside oneself
Like some type of reward
7 Instincts
Hard-wired, fixed behavior patterns that are somewhat more complex than reflexes, are perhaps the simplest level of motivation
7 Drive Reduction Theory
we are motivated by our drives to act in ways that resolve uncomfortable discrepancies between out current state and a state of homeostasis
7 Primary drives
EX) hunger, thirst, need to avoid extreme heat or cold
7 Secondary drives
Less basic
EX) desire for recognition, a good career that looks socially acceptable
7 Maslow’s pyramid
Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization
7 Physiological from Maslow’s
breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
7 Safety from Maslow’s
Security of body, employment, resources, morality, the family, health
7 Love/belonging from Maslow’s
Friendship, family, sexual intimacy
7 Esteem from Maslow’s
Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others and by others
7 Self-actualization of Maslow’s
Morality, creativity, problem solving, lack of prejudice
7 Psychological arousal
Alertness and engagedness
7 The incentive theory of motication
humans respond rationally to external incentives
7 Expectancy-value theory
motivation reflects a balance between expectancies and values
7 Self-determination theory
focuses on the need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness
7 Opponent-process theory
a certain experience initially provokes an intense reaction of one form or another as the experience continues over time, the opposite reaction tends to predominate
7 components of attitude
Affective, behavioral, and cognitive
7 Foot-in-the-door technique
Having someone agree to a small request to then introduce a large request
7 Cognitive dissonance
unhealthy behaviors that are addictive
7 elaboration likelihood model
central route- making a rational decision based on a consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of choices
Peripheral route- make decisions based on gut reactions
7 Erikon’s stages of development
trust v mistrust autonomy v shame initiative v guilt industry v inferiority identity v role confusion intimacy v isolation generativity v stagnation integrity v despair
7 Kohlberg stages of moral development
pre-conventional= childhood (obedience, self-interest) conventional= adolescence (conformity, law-and-order) post-conventional= not everyone gets to this stage (social contract, universal human ethics)
7 Sigmund Frued and personality
id- unconscious urges
ego- interacts with the world and makes decisions
superego- what we are supposed to do, the ideal version of ourselves
7 sublimation
refers to the redirection of desires that are felt to be unacceptable or inappropriate into another behavior
7 Rationalization
coming up with excuses
7 Supression
conscious attempts to disregard uncomfortable feelings
7 oral stage
infants get pleasure from feeding and exploring the world through their mouths
7 anal stage
children learn to control bladder
-anal retentive or anal expulsive
7 Phallic stage
children learn their own private parts
7 Latency phase
sexual urges enter dormancy
7 Genital stage
normal sexual relationships, given previous stages have been resolved
7 Carl Jung
agreed with Freud for the most part, but believed in collective unconscious- persona, shadow, anima
7 BF Skinner
behaviorism
7 Carl Rogers
Unconditional positive regard
therapist accepts clients and show care
7 The theories of personalities “big five”
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
7 Hans and Sybil Eysenck
PEN model
psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism
7 Myers-briggs type inventory
INTP
introverted, intuition, thinking, perceiving
7 Reciprocal determinism
interrelationships between our behaviors, choices, and personalities
7 George Herbert Mead
"I'= our internal selves "me"= version of us that the environment reflects back on us
8 Major depressive disorder
defined by one depressive episode which is a two week period including 5 or more of the following symptoms: lack of interest in things, extreme sadness, weight changes, sleep changes, appetite loss
8 Bipolar disorder
depressive and manic episodes
8 Bipolar I
more mania than depression
8 Bipolar II
more depression with less mania
8 Bipolar disorder
hypomania and even less depression than bipolar II
8 Somatic disorder
refers to an excessive preoccupation or focus on a physical symptom
8 Conversion disorder
physical symptoms involving the impairment of sensory of voluntary motor function that do not appear to have a biological cause- usually happens after high-stress events
8 Dissociative amnesia
a form of retrograde where people lose episodic memories about their own lives
8 Schizophrenia
can have positive or negative symptoms- how emotion is expressed
hallucinations
delusions
disorganized behavior and thought
8 Cluster A personality disorders
Paranoid personality disorder- high level of distrust towards others
Schizoid personality disorder- marked preference for solitude
Schizotypal disorder- discomfort in social settings with delusions
8 Cluster B personality disorders
Antisocial personality disorder- often manifests in violence and lack of remorse
Narcissistic personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder- attention seeking
Borderline personality disorder- unstable and intense emotions
8 Cluster C personality disorders
Avoidant personality disorder- hypersensitive to criticism
Dependent personality disorder
obsessive- compulsive personality disorder- extensive concern with rules, orderliness
8 Schizophrenia biologically
excess levels of neurotransmitters dopamine
8 Depression biologically
deficiency in serotonin and dopamine
selective serotonin reuptakers inhibitors help to boost serotonin in brain
9 Social facilitation
we perform better with group tasks when the arousal is high
9 Yerkes-Dodson law
U shape graph about low to high stress tasks relation to performance
9 Social loafing
Working less hard in a group because other people will pick up the slack
9 Bystander effects
People’s tendency to not offer help to someone in distress if other bystanders are present
9 Deindividuation
people tend to lose their sense of self-awareness in a large group setting because of high arousal and low degree of perceived responsibility
9 Anonymity
sense that no one will know what you do in a crowd
EX) mods
9 Diffused responsibility
sense that you’re not really responsible for what happened
9 Group polarization
tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial positions of the individual group members
9 Informational influence
in a group discussion, people are more likely to express points of view with the dominant viewpoint
9 Normative influence
desire to be socially accepted
9 Groupthink
irrational decisions are made within a group due to pressure towards harmony
9 Janis’ either factors of groupthink
collective rationalization excessive stereotyping illusion of invulnerability illusion of morality illusion of unanimity mindguards pressure on dissenters self-censorship
9 Conformity
Someone’s beliefs changes to line up with the perspectives of others
9 Convergence
when someone’s beliefs just happen to line up with others
9 Solomon Asch experiment
a group in on the experiment reported a wrong answer and other people, who did not know what was happening, went with that wrong answer
9 Door-in-the-face technique
make a large request that you know will be rejected then ask a smaller one
9 Low-ball technique
offering something at a low price only to raise it last minuet after the buyer is already invested in the purchase
9 Milgram experiment
Experimenter, teacher, and learner
see if someone will inflict pain on someone else in response to direct instructions
9 Formal norms
laws written down
9 Informal norms
laws not written down with consequences for violating them
9 Folkways
insignificant informal norms with little to no penalty for violating them
9 Mores
EX) cheating or being a jerk
9 Taboos
most restrictive norms like cannibalism or incest
9 Sanctions
refers to any punishment for violating a social norm and a reward for following
9 Emile Durkheim
coined the term anomie which refers to a situation in which there is no longer a good match between society’s stated norms and the norms individuals respond to
9 Differential association theory
deviance of behavior that is learned socially
9 Symbolic interactionist
behaviors as learned things with culturally determined significance
9 Labeling approach
focuses on how people’s behaviors is affected by being label as deviant
9 Strain theory
looks at why people engage in deviant behaviors
General strain theory- people who experience social or economic hardships may have negative emotional experiences that push them to be more deviant
9 Dispositional attribution
explains behavior in terms of being something internal, or inherent to his disposition or character
EX) he broke my pencil because he is mean
9 Actor-observer bias
we are more likely to make dispositional attributions for someone else, but situational for us
9 Fundamental attribution bias
only applies/considers others. they are dispostional
9 the halo effect
how positive or negative experiences of someone in one domain can affect our view of them in another domain
9 The just-world hypothesis
good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
9 Prejudice
refers to the irrational attitudes, good or bad, to various groups or even objects
9 Stereotype content model
paternalistic- high warm, low competence: low status and no threat
Admiration- high warm, high competence: high status and no threat
contemptuous- low warm, low competence: low status and high threat
envious- low warm, high competence: high status and high threat
9 prejudice, stereotypes, and doscrimmination
prejudice= an affective or emotional response stereotype= cognitive phenomenon discrimination= actions or outcomes based on prejudices
10 Emotional signals
couched in even very small changes in physical stimuli
10 Social sanctions
certain patterns of emotional expression can be indexed to gender
10 Verbal communication
literal words that we say
10 Nonverbal communication
tone of voice, eye contact, body language, etc
10 Self-presentation
how we envision our authentic self and on how we think it will be advantageous to appear in a certain situation
10 Self-disclosure
refers to what you disclose to others about yourself
10 Managing appearances
how you groom yourself, how you dress, how you act
10 Ingratiation
another word for “sucking up”
10 Aligning actions
refers to presenting your actions in a light to make them seem more appealing
10 Altercasting
flips the focus onto other people
10 Goffman’s front and back stage self
front stage= how we present ourselves to an audience
back stage= more authentic self when we are not in front of an audience
10 Mere exposure effect
we eventually develop a preference for familiar people and things
10 Secure attachment
feels distress when caregiver leaves but adjusts to the circumstances knowing the caregiver will return
10 Ambivalent attachment
distress when caregiver leaves and mixed or unclear response upon return
10 Avoidant attachment
Does not care when caregiver leaves or returns
may mean neglect
10 Disoriented attachment
contradictory or confused behavior upon return
may mean abuse
10 Altruism
Refers to helping other people at some cost to yourself, even if only terms of time and energy
10 Foraging
How animals search for food
10 Game theory
a branch of applied mathematics that deals with decision-making under circumstances of incomplete information where there are other actors who are making similar choices, like in a game
10 Prisoner’s Dilemma
when a criminal needs to testify against another criminal to go free. both denounce each other to get lighter sentence, or both keep quiet to get long sentence
10 Race
based off of physical characteristics
10 Symbolic ethnicity
refers to contexts where people invoke ethnic identity under specific and limited circumstances
10 looking-glass self
Our perceptions of how other people see us shape how we see ourselves
10 Self-concept
how we perceive ourselves
10 Self-schemas
impact our behaviors in that we intend to act in the way that is consistent with our self-schemas
10 Self-verification
we seek to have others perceived us according to how we perceive ourselves
11 Achieved status
A status that a person works for to obtain
EX) doctor
11 Ascribed status
Come from outside of ourselves
11 Master status
Status is so dominant it crowds other traits
EX) celebrities
11 Role conflict
Experiencing difficulty maintaining multiple roles
11 Role exit
Process one goes through when disengaging from a role
11 Role engulfment
Occurs when a role expands to dominate someone’s life
11 Primary groups
long-lasting, deep bonds
11 Secondary groups
short lasting and superficial
11 Reference groups
Groups we compare ourselves to
11 dyads and triads
groups of two tend to be less stable than groups of three
11 Social network analysis
researchers can apply various mathematical techniques to analyze the connections among people in networks
11 Formal organizations
Defined rules for entering and exiting the organization and organization continues to exist even when current members are long gone
11 Coercive organization
you do not choose to be a part of, but you have to anyway
EX) prison
11 Normative organizations
organizations people join because of a shared ideal or ethical goal
11 Utilitarian organizations
organizations people join to make money or be compensated in a direct way
11 Iron law of oligarchy
any organization with democratic decision making will wind up being dominated by a smaller group of decision makers
11 McDonaldization
refers to the focus on efficiency, calculability, uniformity, and technological control
11 Emile Durkheim’s functinalism
manifest- what the function is supposed to do
latent- unintended functions (usually positive) while dysfunctional is usually negative
11 Conflict theory
competition between different groups or structures for resources and the conflicts that arise in the process
11 Symbolic interactionism
How people interact using symbols
page 201
11 Social constructionism
points out the meaning of social structure or concept emerges from how we think about those concepts and communicate with each other about them
EX) Thanksgiving
11 Rational choice theory
people have certain preferences or goals, and then chose actions based on the pros and cons of various possible choices in a way that maximizes the likelihood of satisfying the preferences
11 Social exchange theory
views social interactions as involving interchanges with costs and rewards
11 Principles of medical ethics
beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient, autonomy and justice
12 Value
how the world should be, how we should act
12 subcultures
groups of people within a larger cultural framework with additional practices, norms, or values
12 Culture lag
delay between changes, like technology, happening and cultural integration
12 Culture shock
Disorienting experience of immersion of a new culture
12 Assimilation
Integration into the predominent culture
12 Cultural transmission
cultural elements transferred over time
12 Diffusion
transfer between different cultures
12 Generations
GI generation Silent generation 1925-45 Baby boomers 1945-65 Gen X 1965-82 Millennials 1982-2002 Gen Z 2002-10 Generation alpha 2010- present
12 Racialization
imposing a racial identity
12 Racial formation theory
using racialization for political or social goals
12 Demographic transition model
high death and birth
less death and high birth
slowly less death and rapidly less birth
low death and birth
12 Prevalence
how many people in a population have a condition
12 Incidence
how many people get the condition over a given frame in a population
12 Intergenerational
The ability for successive generations rise or fall in status or class
12 Intragenerational
Events within a person’s lifetime that changes his or her status
12 Vertical mobility
a rise or fall in income
12 Horizontal mobility
keeping the same income, but in a different occupation (or no occupation)
