Why was M appointed PM in 1922 Flashcards
How was M influenced by his place of birth
Born in Predappio, Romagna, a region of marked class conflict and strong anarchist and republican political traditions
How was M influenced by his father
He absorbed revolutionary ideas from his father. ‘Socialism is an open and violent rebellion against our inhuman state of things’
What doid M always stress about how his background had influenced him
‘I am a man of the people. I understand the people because I am one of them’
Angelica Balbanoff, a marxist socialist who had a strong influence on M, gained this insight into his character
As soon as I saw that he knew little of history, economics and marxist theory and that his mind was completely undisciplined, I saw that his radicalism and anti clericalism were more the reflection of his early environment and his own rebellious egoism than the product of understanding and conviction; his hatred of oppression was not an impersonal hatred of a system shared by all revolutionaries; it sprang rather from his own sense of indignity and frustration, from a passion to assert his own ego and from a determination for personal revenge
What was M’s position in Italian politics heading into 1914
He was firmly established in the revolutionary wing of the socialist party. His journalism was aggressive; he supported violence and a revolutionary socialist takeover
How did the PSI react to the outbreak of war
They saw the war as an imperialist struggle fought at the expense of the working classes in Europe. Unlike most other socialist parties, the PSI stuck to its principles ad opposed Italy’s entry into the war
Why did M disagree
He was impatient about being sidelined from an event which might destroy existing political structures, provide exciting revolutionary options and give opportunities for personal glory
What did he write just a year earlier in 1913 that shows how quickly he could change his mind
Let us have no more talk of battleships, barracks, cannon at a time when thousands of villages have no schools, roads, electricity or doctors, but still live tragically beyond the pale of civilised life
Give two excerpts from Avanti which show how quickly he was prone to change his mind
In July 1914: Down with war! Down with arms and up with humanity
Oct 1914: To offer the same kind of opposition to all wars is stupidity bordering on the imbecile. Do you want to be a spectator of this great drama or do you want to be its fighters?
What did he write in May 1915 that shows that he may have supported war in the hopes that it would be a vehicle for national unity
From today we are all Italians, nothing but Italians
Why was he expelled from the socialist party
For promoting intervention
How did he respond to this
He set up his own newspaper in Nov 1914, partly financed by the French govt and Italian industrialists. The paper was known as Il Popolo d’Italia and claimed to still be supporter of socialist ideas, but advocated entry into the war
How would the newspaper change view following M’s brief time fighting
After Caporetto, he claimed Italy needed a strong commander to take control of the war effort. Instead of calling the paper a socialist daily, it became ‘the paper of combatants and producers’. No longer would the emphasis be on class; M would welcome anyone prepared to fight and work to save the nation
Explain how fascism developed from a left wing to a right wing movement between 1919-22
- March 1919 saw the creation of the fascio di combattimento, mainly formed of ex soldiers. Said they would provide new leadership in a national revolution. Movement rather than a party. Sought the support of all patriotic Italians. Their programme expressed radical social ideas, stemming from their experience of war. Provided a nationalist socialist alternative to the PSI, who were seen as traitors
The movement attracted a mixed collection of people dissatisfied with the status quo. The movements main mouthpiece was Il Popolo d’Italia. In April 1919 they burned down the Avanti offices and engaged in other acts of violence against the hated socialists. Failed miserably in the 1919 elections after standing on a radical programme. M gained only 2% of the Milan vote and the radical vote went to the PSI
By 1920 the indstrial and rural elite were worried by the rise of socialism and govt inaction. Some saw the fascists as the best antidote to socialism and started to give funds to the fascist squads to fight the socialists
M wanted change and power and saw opportunity. He could achieve this by appealing to those frightened by the socialists. This meant playing down his left wing ideas and shifting his programme to have greater right wing appeal
In late 1920 fascism took off, especially in rural areas in northern and central Italy. Ras set up their own squads. They attracted not only the agrarian elite, but also many small landholders armed by socialist local govt and worried about a socialist revolution. Fascist anti socialism made fascism a mass movement
Some original fascist were concerned about how the bourgeoisie were joining the movement and M’s shift to the right. Many dropped out of the movement. Several ras protested against M as they were not yet under his control. However as the movement grew they realised how important M and his paper were for unity and strength
Giolitti hoped that he could absorb the movement that was becoming a major force in the country. He gambled by forming an electoral alliance with the fascists in 1921. They gained 35 seats and M joined parliament. Giolitti hoped to tame them by offering M a govt role but M refused to become a junior partner
Tension emerged between fascist wanting to seize power legally and those who wanted to revolution. M was concerned about the threat of fascist violence undermining his position as a respectable MP and his control of the movement. In AUg 1921 he signed a pact of pacification with the socialists. Ras pressure forced him to back down. In Nov 1921 he formed the PNF which recognised the role of the squads but accepted M as the indispensible duce. Its new programme was right wing. M was looking for more power, which meant becoming more respectable
By 1922 the fascists had broken socialist power in many northern and central areas. They were often assisted by the authorities, who were keen to see the socialists smashed. M was under pressure from some of the ras to seize power, and he realised that if fascism did not gain power soon the movement might collapse. He hoped to use ras pressure on govt to be appointed PM legally. In Sep 1922 he announced his support for the monarchy
The fascists planned seizure of local govts and a march on rome to seize power. Many in the elite were arguing the the fascists should join the govt. M would only accept becoming PM
What did M say upon announcing war with socialism
‘We declare war on socialism not because it is socialism but because it is opposed to nationalism’
Why was M not really in a position to set out a detailed political programme in 1919
Because he could not do this without alienating current or potential supporters, given the fact the group was such an eclectic mix
Give a statistic to show how fascism remained small in 1919
Had little over 1000 members
What can explain this lack of early success
Fascism was still viewed as a left wing movement and left wing support went to the PSI
Give a statistic to prove this was the case
In the 1919 GE fascists gained only 5000 votes compared to 168,000 for the PSI
Why did it not matter that the fascist shift to the right lost some support
These losses were replaced by young, lower middle class recruits from the universities, the civil service and the respectable bourgeois families
Why do historians now play down the importance of M in the growth of fascism
The movement grew with the development of locally formed fasci led by ras, some of whom had very different ideas to M. Historians increasinly stress the importance of developments in local fascism at this time. Where M was important was in providing a nationally recognised leader. However, it was going to be several years until he could fully control fascism
From what social class could the key group of active supporters be found
This group contained a wide range of people in both the working class and middle class. They felt a collective sense of insecurity and were prone to turn to radical groups. Many were ex soldiers proud of the military victory they had won, but felt humiliated by not receiving what they considered to be owed by the govt. They thought themselves entitled to major rewards for their services but received none
How did fascism become a mass movement by attracting agricultural support
They won a rural lower middle class base among small farmers in parts of Romagna, Lombardy and Venetia. Some of these farmers had recently improved their position and expanded their landholdings. They believed that rural socialism threatened these gains. The agrari were also prepared to finance any movement willing to combat socialism
Why did fascism gain the support of industrialists
They were frightened by socialism and were concerned that the liberals were making too many concessions to workers
Why did students and youths support the movement
They were eager for adventure and action and embittered about the rising wages of unpatriotic workers and their own lack of prospects. They detested the boring routine of their daily lives and many joined the squads
How did the movement even attract support from some socialists
As they smashed socialist and catholic unions, workers found they had to join fascist syndicates for employment. Several of the fascists of the first hour were syndicalists who believed that workers should be organised into unions to protect their members and contribute to the industrial growth of Italy. Some workers also resented the string arm methods against blacklegs which socialist unions used, and were therefore attracted to a rival organisation
The fascist also attracted working class support by retaining some aspects of their original social radicalism. They could still talk of giving land to the peasants and fair wages and prices. Employers tolerated such talk as long as it served to weaken socialism, and very little came of it anyway
What did M say in 1922 about the importance of rural fascism
The sharecropper or leaseholder tries with all his strength to become and owner. The peasants are conquering the land by their own strength. It is therefore clear that the new class of small owners cannot help but detest socialism. From fascism they everything to hope for and nothing to fear. During the risorgimento the rurali (agricultural population) were either absent or hostile. The great war recruited them in their millions. However, their participation in events was on the whole passive. Now fascism has transformed this rural passivity into active support for the sanctity of the nation
Why kind of sentiments did fascism commit itself to as M purged the radical elements of the movement
Restoring Italian power and prestige
Develop the economy by increasing productivity
Abolish harmful state controls
Re-establish strong leadership and law and order by cracking down on left wing subversives
How did de-redicalisation continue in 1922
Abandonment of republicanism
End of anti clericalism
Dropped demands for votes for women and taxes on war profits
Increasingly the emphasis was placed on nationalism, a strong state and an active foreign policy
How did M feel about party political programmes
He never spoke favourably of them. He claimed that Italy had had enough of politics and programmes and wanted action instead. Furthermore, it would be difficult to unite his diverse collection of supporters around a detailed political programme. His temperament aligned more with a desire for action than being tied to a party manifesto
What does DMS say about the unprincipled nature of fascism
Had elements of left and right. Revolutionary and conservative, monarchist but also republican, catholic but also anti clerical, claimed to be socialist but could also be strongly capitalist
Fascism was not a doctrine, not ideas, not ideology, it was really a means to an end for one single man to achieve power
How many opponents are estimated to have been killed by the fascists between 1920-22
2000
Why can it be said that Bonomi did not do enough to prevent the rise of fascism in upon becoming PM in Dec 1921
He merely authorised rather than instructed local prefects to take firm action against paramilitary groups, and most prefects avoided such a potentially dangerous course of action
What does Cassels say about how the establishment was unwilling to oppose fascist violence
By 1922 there was hardly any segment of the Italian establishment that was not willing to collaborate with fascism for either nationalist and anti bolshevik reasons
Make the case that fascism was a strong contender to take power by 1922
Half a million PNF members
250,000 blackshirts
Virtually controlled several regions
Offered firm leadership, an end to class conflict and a return to national greatness at a time when many Italians were disillusioned
Their violence had helped smash socialism and they had therefore attracted the support of groups intimidated by socialism
They had an aura of power far beyond their numbers
How had the opponents of fascism aided its growth
Weak and divided
Liberal govts offered no leadership in the face of serious economic and political problems
Recent historians have put great success on the collapse at the centre an especially the provinces between 1920-22
Liberal socialist and catholic opponents to fascism were unable to cooperate
What did the govt have to choose between in Autumn 1922
They had to either take a firm stand against fascist violence or try and tame it by incorporating the moderate fascists into govt
Give an example of how opponents fascism could not cooperate to combat it
In July 1922 when the moderates in the PPI and the PSI agreed to join the liberals in an anti fascist coalition, Giolitti withheld support and the plan collapsed. Liberal politicians were still putting personal feuds above the need for united action
Why was socialism still an important factor in the fascist coming to power despite the fact that it was on the wane
There power had peaked in Sep 1920 with the factory occupations. Diminished power of socialism was actually a problem for fascism as it would have made them unnecessary. However, similar to with the mutilated victory, what matters was what people believed, and they still feared socialism
