Mussolini seizes the initiative: May 1921-October 1922

Question 1

What two important things had the 1921 GE given M?

Answer 1

An air of respectability and a foothold in parliament

Question 2

Why did he announce that the fascists would not support Giolitti’s government after all?

Answer 2

He did not want the movement to be absorbed into liberalism or become a junior partner in the coalition

Question 3

What did M know he needed to do take real power?

Answer 3

Demonstrate to the Italian public, the industrialists, landowners and the middle classes in particular that liberalism was finished as a political movement

Question 4

What provided proof for this idea?

Answer 4

Unstable short lived governments unable to maintain law and order or deal with Italy’s economic problems

Question 5

What did he have to convince these groups about fascism?

Answer 5

That it was the only way to stop socialism and restore order and discipline to Italian society

Question 6

What did he realise he must do to the movement for it to become acceptable to conservatives and the middle classes?

Answer 6

He must abandon or play down any ideas about radical economic or social reform

Question 7

Describe governments following the May 1921 GE

Answer 7

Unstable

Question 8

What did Giolitti do following the GE?

Answer 8

Formed a coalition without M

Question 9

What happened to this coalition?

Answer 9

It collapsed within a month

Question 10

What caused it to collapse?

Answer 10

The PPI withdrew its support when he proposed to introduce a tax which would have had the side effect of hitting the Vatican’s financial investments

Question 11

Why could there be no stable government after this?

Answer 11

Because without the support of the PPI, with its 107 seats, it was almost impossible for any government to survive. The PPI was suspicious of the anticlerical traditions of liberalism and was willing to destroy any government that offended it

Question 12

What made matters worse for the liberals?

Answer 12

They were divided amongst themselves

Question 13

What caused this internal division?

Answer 13

Liberalism was still plagued by factions centred around prominent politicians, notably Giolitti, Facta, Salandra and Orlando, all of whom actively disliked one another

Question 14

What was the consequence of this?

Answer 14

There were three governments between May 1921 and October 1922 and they were fragile and unable to introduce the necessary measures needed to cope with the industrial disruption and the collapse of law and order

Question 15

What was the collapse of law and order largely a consequence of?

Answer 15

Fascist actions

Question 16

How did fascist violence extend to parliament itself in 1921?

Answer 16

A socialist deputy was beaten up on the floor of the chamber

Question 17

What were M’s activities directed towards for the rest of 1921?

Answer 17

Making fascism a cohesive political force that could command more widespread support

Question 18

What did this result in the formation of in October 1921?

Answer 18

the National Fascist Party

Question 19

What did the party congress do in the following month?

Answer 19

Formerly accepted M as party leader

Question 20

Who ran and organised the PNF?

Answer 20

Men from M’s own Milan faction, who were loyal to him

Question 21

What did he establish more control over?

Answer 21

The squads

Question 22

Why was this control over provincial fascism as party leader not total?

Answer 22

Because there were still disagreements over how to secure power

Question 23

Who did he make a direct attempt to win over in Nov 1921?

Answer 23

The Catholics

Question 24

How did he do this?

Answer 24

He declared fascism to be opposed to divorce, in agreement with the PPI that the peasants deserved a better deal and prepared to settle the Roman Question on terms acceptable to the Pope

Question 25

What was the Roman Question?

Answer 25

The political dispute over the role of the Catholic Church in the Italian state, including the territorial claims of the Pope over Rome, and the issues of civil and church marraige and divorce

Question 26

How did he appeal to conservatives?

Answer 26

He dropped the more socialist sounding policies in 1919. The 35 fascist deputies elected in 1921 were on the right of the party

Question 27

Describe M’s speeches from 1921

Answer 27

They concentrated on what fascism was against, namely socialism and liberlism, spelling out fascist policies only in very broad terms, stressing its patriotism and commitment to strong government

Question 28

What were these speeches deliberate attempts to do?

Answer 28

Convince conservatives that they had nothing to lose but much to gain from the victory of fascism

Question 29

What did his vague speeches reflect?

Answer 29

Fascism’s lack of specific, detailed policies

Question 30

What political ideas did M subscribe to?

Answer 30

He wanted a strong, expansionist Italy, hated socialism and democracy and despised parliament

Question 30

What was his principle concern rather than ideology?

Answer 30

Winning power for himself and becoming a dictator

Question 31

What was the consequence of this?

Answer 31

All policy was directed towards this end

Question 32

Why was it advantageous to have little clear policy?

Answer 32

Because no groups would be offended and it provided the flexibility to go in any direction

Question 33

Why was M concerned about the increasing fascist violence even though it was directed towards the socialists?

Answer 33

Because it might go too far and cause the conservatives to demand that the fascists be crushed so that law and order can be restored

Question 34

Why was this a real danger?

Answer 34

Because M could see that the army and police had the resources to crush his movement

Question 35

What was his ability to calm the conservatives while preventing splits forming within the party proof of?

Answer 35

His political skill

Question 36

What did he encourage the squads to continue with?

Answer 36

Their campaign of violence

Question 37

What did this suggest he might agree with?

Answer 37

Their plans for a violent seizure of power

Question 38

What did he do when talking with conservatives?

Answer 38

He disassociated himself from the worst excesses of fascist violence - suggesting that the perpetrators were renegades whom he would discipline, implying that only he could curb these excesses

Question 39

What did he say he would do if they conceded a share of political power to fascism?

Answer 39

Ensure that the PNF became a more respectable political party

Question 40

When did this dual policy continue into?

Answer 40

Throughout 1922

Question 41

What did the squads do in spring 1922?

Answer 41

They rampaged through northern and central Italy attacking socialist town councils and attacking TU property

Question 42

What did they do in May?

Answer 42

The town council in Bologna was driven out of office

Question 43

What happened in July?

Answer 43

Street fighting took place in most of the northern cities

Question 44

What did M do during discussion with the liberals at this time?

Answer 44

He stressed fascist power but looked to underline that it was far from a rabid, revolutionary movement

Question 45

What did he imply he was interested in?

Answer 45

A parliamentary alliance that would bring the fascists into government

Question 46

Why was this an astute political move?

Answer 46

Because the fragile coalition government lacked the political will to use the police against a group who may soon be joining them in government

Question 47

Why were the police reluctant to intervene in street fighting anyway?

Answer 47

Because they had no love for the socialists and in some areas they had even loaned weapons to their local fascist squads

Question 48

What happened at the end of July 1922?

Answer 48

The socialist TUs called a general strike in an attempt to force the government to act against the fascists

Question 49

What is a general strike?

Answer 49

A strike involving millions of workers in a wide range of industries. They usually have a political motive rather than being about pay and working conditions

Question 50

What did M use this opportunity to do?

Answer 50

Present the left as a threat that only the fascists could deal with

Question 51

What did he publicly declare after the general strike was announced?

Answer 51

That if the government did not stop the industrial action then the fascists would step in and do it for them

Question 52

What did the fascists do immediately after the strike began?

Answer 52

Took over the running of public transport and ensured the postal system continued to run. If strikers protested they were beaten up

Question 53

Why was the general strike a fiasco for the left?

Answer 53

It had been poorly organised, and only attracted partial support from the workers. Even those in the cities where the strike call was obeyed, the fascist action limited its effect. The strike collapsed within days, leaving the socialists in disarray

Question 54

What could M present the socialists as?

Answer 54

The sole defenders of law and order

Question 55

Why was this a crucial turning point for the fascists?

Answer 55

It convinced the conservatives that the fascists could be trusted with a share in government. From this point the question was not whether the fascists would enter the government, but rather on what terms