How secure was liberal Italy in 1914 Flashcards
Explain how astonishing the two years over which the risorgimento took place
In 1859 Italians were divided and ruled by foreigners. Most states has absolute rulers with no elected parliament. Within two years there had been a mass uprising; Austria had been defeated; most of Italy had been united and this new state was ruled by a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament
What would this remarkable risorgimento suggests about the new state
Seems like a triumph for nationalism that would suggest a strong and unified nation
What factors prevented Italy from being a strong unified state in practise
Cavour had not intended to create a new unified Italy, but only an enlarged state in the north
Most of the initial fighting done to expel to Austrians came from French troops
In 1866 it was the Prussians, rather than the Italians, who were victorious over the Austrians
Most of those who participated in the popular uprising in 1860 in Sicily did not even know what the word ‘Italy’ even meant
More Italians were to die rebelling against ‘their’ new government in the 1860s than died fighting for it during the risorgimento years
Nationalists like Garibaldi and Mazzini were disappointed with the new Italy, as it did little to improve the lives of the Italian masses
A new Italian state had been created; but the economic and social structures largely remained the same
At first only 2% of the people had the franchise
Austria ruled north east Italy until 1866
The Pope ruled Rome until 1870
Austria kept Trentino and the South Tyrol in North Italy
What do some historians argue the risorgimento is connected to
The fascists coming to power
What were the two differing attitudes to the risorgimento within Italy
Nationalist saw it as a great triumph for popular Italian national feeling
Critics saw it as a product of diplomatic manoeuvres, led by French and Italian politicians, who were distrustful of the masses. In this view the Italian state was flawed from the offset
Who was Antonio Grmasci
An Italian Marxist imprisoned by the fascists
What did he say about the failure of the risorgimento
The risorgimento leaders said they were aiming at the creation of a modern Italian state and they produced a bastard.
Aimed at forming an extensive and energetic ruling class and failed.
Aimed at integrating the public into the framework of the new state and failed
The rebellious nature of the Italian people between 1870-1900 was a consequence of this failure
What happened to the risorgimento movement in 1848-9
Series of revolts throughout Italy. Piedmont led a war for independence against Austria but was defeated
List the 8 main steps in unification
Cavour does a deal with Napoleon III to help expel Austria. Wants to create an independent Italian state in the north and centre, but not include the backward south
French and Piedmontese defeat the Austrians at Magenta and Solferino. Piedmont takes over Lombardy and the central Duchies but not Explain lack of serious debate as a disadvantage of invisible primaries Venetia which Austria retains
Garibaldi organises an expedition to unify Italy and march on Rome. Joins a peasant revolt in Sicily and conquers Sicily in Naples
Piedmontese troops occupy much of the papal states to link up with Garibaldi and he hands over his conquests to Emmanuel II
1861 new Kingdom of Italy proclaimed in Turin
Prussia and Italy fight Austria. Italy lose but Prussia win. Austria hands Venetia to Italy
In 1862 and 1867 Garibaldi leads two failed attempts to march on Rome
In 1870 Prussia defeats France who withdraws its troops from Rome. Italian troops move in. Rome becomes the capital of a fully unified Italian state
Why do many historians say that the rise of fascism was a consequence of the risorgimento
As a direct result of the Italy was created but not fully unified, the new Italian state suffered a number of weaknessess. The new Liberal state was unwilling or unable to tackle these, and this made Italy susceptible to the appeal of fascism
What domestic problems with the risorgimento state led to the rise of fascism
Lack of popular involvement in making Italy meant that the mass of people did not identify with the new Italian state. This was made was by the fact that they were not given the franchise in this new state
The unification process was dominated by the wealthy and educated elite, who were not committed to the major social reforms that would have been necessary to improve the living standards of the masses
The Pope was hostile to the new liberal state
The makers of Italy had not intended to include the backward south and they neglected its problems
Debts incurred in the wars of unification meant that the govt imposed high taxes and restricted spending on social reforms
What foreign policy problems with the risorgimento state led to the rise of fascism
Reliance on foreign armies to unify Italy contributed to a national inferiority complex and a desire to show that Italy was a great power
Italy’s failure to defeat Austria in 1866 left them in control of irredenta land
What was the overall reason that risorgimento state would lead to fascism `
The creation of the new state raised expectations of social reform and national greatness which were not fulfilled by liberal Italy, and which fascism offered to deliver
What did govt minister D’Azeglio famously state after formal unification
We have made Italy. Now we must make Italians
What would the new Italian people need to see if they were to be won over by the liberal state
Success in domestic and foreign policy
How did Italy compare to other powers in terms of steel production
Italy - 0.7 million tonnes
GB - 6.5 million tonnes
Germany - 13.7 million tonnes
France - 3.4 million tonnes
How did they compare to the major powers in terms of the value of foreign trade by 1913
Italy - $1.8 billion
France - $2.2 billion
Germany - $4.3 billion
GB - $7.5 billion
What % of the south had roads by the 1890s
Just 10%
What were the major industries
Silk and engineering
How did deaths per 1000s compare to Britain in the 1880s
29 in the south
26 in the north
19 in GB
How did opposition from the church hinder the liberals
Pope told Catholics they would be excommunicated if they interacted with the new state
Some priests helped stir up unrest amongst the peasantry
How did economic problems hinder the liberals
Government debt
High taxes on the poor
North south divide accentuated through northern industrialisation
Frequent unrest, especially in Sicily; 1860s and 1893-4 saw major revolts
How did political problems hinder the liberals
Limited suffrage meant most Italians were uninvolved in the new state apart from paying taxes and being conscipted into the army
Politicians were seen as corrupt
Instability due to frequent changes in govt
How did foreign policy hinder the liberals
Italian irredenta kept by Austria after 1866
Govt had inferiority complex
Defeat at Adowa
Why was the franchise so limited
The liberals who controlled the unification process didn’t think ordinary Italians had the ability to participate in govt. They believed in a parliament, but one that was chosen by the wealthy educated elite rather than the masses. This right for the masses would come later after wealth and education had spread. However, most liberals didn’t even think that spreading wealth was important, as balancing the budget and building up military might were far more important
What did the constitution do
Laid down the powers of the monarch and guaranteed basic individual rights like free speech and religious freedom
How was the franchise extended over time
Raised to 25% of adult males in 1882 and then most adult males in 1912
How were govts formed
Groups of politicians did deals among themselves. An ambitious politician could try and gain enough support from other deputies to form a govt. This might mean winning over former opponents by offering them certain jobs, favours, or services for their constituency
What was this political manoeuvring known as
The transformismo
Give a quote from Crispi describing the transformismo system in the 1890s in the assembly
‘Utter pandemonium, especially when an important vote comes along. Government agents run through rooms and down corridors, collecting votes and promising subsidies, decorations, canals and bridges’
Why was the transformismo system such a problem
Created the impression that politics was all about deals. This increased the sense of alienation the masses felt from the system
Describe how corruption was prevalent in local govt
The central govt appointed prefects, who vitrually ran the provinces, ensuring that govt supported candidates won elections. Bribery and inefficiency in administration were widespread. This further discredited the liberal system in the eyes of many Italians
What do historians mean when they say that there was a gulf between ‘legal Italy’ and ‘real Italy’
There was a big difference between the parliament and the political classes that ruled the country and the ordinary Italians with day to day concerns. The majority knew very little of what went on beyond their villages. For them, Italy was not their country, it was just another country that forced them to pay taxes and do military service
What happened to industry in 1900
It developed considerably in the north
What was industrial development always going to be limited by
A lack of natural resources
How did the new govt economically unify Italy
By abolishing internal tariffs and established an internal market
What was the downside of this
Harmed what little industry existed in the south, which could not compete with the more advanced north. The rapid growth of industry in the north after 1900 reinforced the unresolved north south economic divide
How did govt aims make the lives of workers harder
Most govts put a high priority on a balanced budget. The new state inherited large debts due to the risorgimento wars and raised taxes to pay of these debts. Taxes mainly fell on the poor, and by 1900 Italians were estimated to be the most highly taxed people in Europe
Why could workers not even go on strike to demand higher wages in response
Because if they did then the govt would support employers in rejecting these demands
Give some statistics to prove that the liberal govt had some success in dealing with the illeteracy problem
Fell from 42% in 1871 to 11% in 1911. In the south the fall was from 88% to 65%
Why did the pope consider liberalism a sin
Because it allowed religious freedom, and for him catholicism was the only true religion
What did the pope instruct catholics not to do in 1874
Participate in the new state. Bishops and priests reinforced this message to Italians. This was important as for many, the parish priest was their main source of info
Why was there a detente in church state relations towards the end of the century
The Pope became more concerned with the advance of socialism. The marxist socialists not only criticised the power of the church, but also rejected religion itself. In 1904 the Pope authorised bishops to instruct catholics to vote in elections if it helped defeat the socialists
How many casualties did Italy suffer at the Battle of Adowa
15,000 - and many Italian prisoners were castrated
What did German chancellor Bismarck say about Italian foreign policy
Italy has a ‘large appetite but little teeth’
How might successful foreign policy aid untiy
Because it could make Italians identify with their nation
How might this backfire
Because the cost of war might actually increase discontent
Why did it seem like Italy might actually be able to take control of Tunisia
Because there were already many Italian emigrants there
What did Italy do the year after France took Tunisia
Joined the anti-French triple alliance
How did the liberal govts respond to mass unrest from both left and right in the 1890s
The mass unrest was met with repression and there was an attempt to set up a more authoritarian govt, relying on royal decrees. This can be seen as a precursor to fascism
How did this change in 1900
Giolitti represented a more moderate approach, the liberal state had survived the opposition but politicians realised they could no longer rely on repression alone and that fundamental changes were needed to reduce the gap between legal and real Italy
Describe the attacks from the left in the 1890s
Between 1892-4 mass peasant unrest in the south was put down by 40,000 troops
In 1898 there were strikes and riots in northern cities. 100 demonstrators were shot in 1900, and anarchists assassinated King Umberto
Why did Giolitti have to resign after a brief stint as PM in 1992-3
Due to the banca romana scandal
What was the Giolitti era
The period between 1903-14 where he dominated politics, either as PM or from behind the scenes. Skillful at winning majorities in the assembly, and using the prefect system to enhance his power. A series of Giolittian reforms were passed at this time
Describe his postwar contribution to politics
PM from mid 1920-mid 1921 and played a role in helping M to power
What two different opinions do historians have about the liberal regime by 1914 following the giolitti era
Some argue that by 1914 the regime was well on its way to security; others argue that despite his reforms, the regime was still far from secure
What two key issues would Giolitti have to face if he was to make the position of liberal Italy more secure
He had to gain the support of the masses while retaining the support of the traditional elites
Reconcile catholicism and the new developing forces of socialism and aggresive nationalism into the framework of the new state
Comments Giolitti made to parliament in 1900
The country is sick politically and morally, the cause of this is the classes in power have been spending enormous sums on themselves and their own interests, and they have obtained the money almost exclusively from the poorer sections of society
It is irrational to think that low wages help industry. Low wages mean a poor diet; an underfed worker is physically and intellectually weak
Giolitti to the chiefs of police in 1906
Remind all state officials that govt action must be inspired by absolute neutrality in the struggle between capital and labour, and by an affectionate concern for the legitimate aspirations of the working classes
What was the main opposition Giolitti came up against
The growth of socialism
How did elites react to the rise of socialism
It frightened the elites, particularly the catholic church
How did the development of industry in the north in the 1880s and 1890s aid socialism
Because it led to the founding of TUs and cooperative organisations
How were many of these TUs and cooperative organisations linked together?
Through the socialist controlled General Confederation of Labour (CGL)
How did socialism become more organised in 1900
There was an organised socialist party, the PSI, which began winning parliamentary seats
What % of the vote did the PSI win in 1913
20%
What body made up the political wing of the labour movement
The PSI
What body made up the industrial wing of the labour movement
The CGL
Why was there a split within the labour movement
Between the moderates and revolutionaries. The minimalists argued that peaceful pressure could achieve reform, and that they should aim for a minimum programme of measures to help workers improve their living standards. The radicals argued that the PSI should strive to achieve a full socialist state. They argued that unions should organise strikes to overthrow the existing system and set up a new society based on union organisation. These were known as syndicalists. Some syndicalist ideas would later contribute to fascism
Which faction gained control of the PSI by 1912
The maximalists, with M as one of their leaders
When was the Italian National Association set up
1911
Where did the Italian National Association draw support from
A mixture of business interests, journalists, poets and painters
How did they feel about the liberal govts
Disappointed by what they saw as feeble domestic and foreign policy
What did they want to replace the current liberal system
Wanted a vigourous authoritarian govt to inspire the mass, get rid of class warfare, and lead the nation forward to greatness. On their banners was the slogan ‘our country is nothing without conquest’. Fascism later went on to express many of these feelings
Explain futurism
Cultural movement which was part of the early 20th century revolt against the existing boring, staid world. Rejected the liberal view that the main aim of life was a comfortable, bourgeois existence. Instead they glorified speed, action, conflict and violence. Strong supporters of nationalism and imperialism. Fascinated by the industrial age and modern tech. The most famous futurist was Marinetti, who was a writer and early supporter of fascism - he later gave prestige to the movement
What did Giolitti think would help make liberal institutions more acceptable and secure
Increasing wealth and prosperity
Give a statistic to show how the benefits of industrial expansion seeped down to the people
Real wages rose 25% between 1890-1913
This was combined with a series of social reforms during the Giolitti era
Laws controlling female and child labour
Establishment of social insurance and pensions schemes
Franchise extended to all males over 30
Why did Giolitti’s plans to bring to divergent groups in society together not work in practise
In trying to please one section he alienated another. Thus in trying to win over the moderate socialists and catholics to the liberal system, he only succeeded in upsetting some liberals who feared any increase in the influence of the church or workers
How did he want to change the way that the state looked at industrial disputes
He wanted it to be more neutral instead of automatically using its forces to crush workers
What impact did this policy have on the growth of socialism
It failed to satisfy the unions and the growth of socialism continued
How did industrialists react to this policy
They feared that the state no longer represented their interests. They saw neutrality as the state being on the side of the workers. This growing fear of socialism influenced their actions in the turbulent post war period. They began to look for a more authoritarian form of govt which would vigorously resist any challenges from workers
Describe the role of the petty bourgeoisie at this time
The growing role of the state led to an increase in the number of civil servants and professional groups. They joined the petty bourgeoisie of small traders and shopkeepers, whose numbers were also increasing as the economy developed. Some of them were concerned about the dangers of socialism, the power of big business and the weakness of govt. They too began to look for an alternative to liberalism
How did Giolitti turn to foreign policy to achieve unity
Tried to look for foreign expansion to achieve support. He gave way to the nationalists and attacked Libya in 1911
Why was the Libyan campaign arguably negative despite the fact that Italy won
Many ordinary Italians resented the war. They were conscripted to fight in a conflict they did not understand and paid for it through increased taxation. The victory may have reduced criticism from the nationalist right, but it strengthened the radical socialists criticism of Giolitti
Why did Giolitti’s plans to gain the support of the masses by passing laws to assist them backfire
His attempts at social reform were somewhat undermined by the fact that he used methods of traditional corrupt politicians, the transformismo. In attempting to stay in power by gaining the support of a variety of political groupings he seemed like just another schemer, even becoming known as the master of the underworld
What happened in 1914 despite Giolitti’s reforms
This year saw the worst outbreak of mass unrest since 1898
Describe the red week of 1914
The shooting of three demonstrators sparked off riots and demonstrations in most major cities. Some radicals seized control of major buildings. In ‘Red Romagna’ two areas proclaimed themselves independent republics. A general strike was called but the various socialist groups failed to organise their protests effectively. The govt used thousands of soldiers to restore order. After a week the unrest subsided. However, ‘red week’ frightened the bourgeoisie and seemed to show that Giolitti’s policy of trying to absorb the workers into the system had failed
What does M Clark say about the position of Italy by 1914
Urbanisation and growing literacy were having some effect. Italian had become a lingua franca in the army and the towns and perhaps six of seven million spoke it. Most had gone through some patriotic propaganda at school. A national economy existed, linked by roads and railways. Institutions like TUs, CA and newspapers had become larger and more national. The state had managed to exist, for good or ill, for 50 years. People had grown used to it and even the church seemed reconciled
One should not exaggerate. Nation states and pre-1914 Italy was not one. There was no liberal hegemony and no agreement on basic ideological, educational or social aims. Most people only spoke dialect and nearly 40% of adults were illeterate. A popular press barely existed. Marconi had invented the wireless in 1896, but as yet there was no broadcasting or central control of the people’s info. The social and economic gap between the north and south remained. Italy was still run by a small elite with the title to rule except its belligerant patriotism and its historical myths
M Robson
Socialists condemned the Giolitti regime as a guise for capitalist exploitation of the working classes. Wages were low and hours were very long compared with the rest of western Europe. Welfare benefits like sickness and pension payments also compared unfavourably. Any benefits in the life of workers had to be forced out a state all to willing to use to army to crush strikers and opposing political groups. The wealth of the country had been squandered on imperialist adventures. Chronic poverty still widespread
To the right wing nationalists the regime was equally contemptible. Lacked the will to make Italy a major force in Europe. Italian interests had been neglected over Tunis in 1881 and incompetence had led to humiliation in 1896. Emigration was a national disgrace. Liberal weaknesses had exascerbated class struggle. The state had neither crushed nor socialism nor given workers a viable alternative to buy into. Liberalism had failed to instil a national spirit because its politicians were without principle. They were only concerned with their own private interests and careers and made deals with anyone who could further these selfish aims
The liberals were proud of what they had achieved. They had held Italy together for 40 years, had sponsored mass education and presided over industrialisation. Education, military service and economic growth had helped create Italians out of those previously ignorant of anything outside their immediate locality
The task was not complete and dangers from the left and right remained, but most liberals were not despondent
