Historians' views on Mussolini's rise to power

Question 1

How does Renzo De Felice, the most prominent Italian historian, view the rise of fascism?

Answer 1

He sees it as something of an aberration; an unfortunate episode separating liberal Italy with the democratic Italy that emerged after WWII

Question 2

How did liberal historian Benedetto Croce describe the rise of fascism, writing in the 1930s and 40s?

Answer 2

A momentary contagion

Question 3

What did Croce believe brought about the rise of fascism?

Answer 3

He thought it had nothing to do with the liberal regime, instead it was a consequence of the shock of WWI and the Russian Revolution, with their dire socio-economic consequences.

Question 4

What did Croce see the liberal movement as representing?

Answer 4

Progress and freedom

Question 5

What does Dennis Mack Smith see as the key contributory factor to Mussolini’s rise to power?

Answer 5

He emphaises the key role of Mussolini in turning disorder into political capital

Question 6

Give some examples of the things Mussolini would do to make fascism seem attractive to the Italian people

Answer 6

• He took every opportunity to exaggerate the socialist threat in Il Popolo d’Italia
• Also used his newspaper to depict the fascists as selfless individuals rather than violent thugs
• Presented the fascist vision as being one of peace, stability, social harmony and respect on the international stage

Question 7

Whose support did Mussolini manage to acquire as a result of his political skill?

Answer 7

Conservatives

Question 8

How did Mussolini win the support of conservatives?

Answer 8

By abandoning the radical political programme of 1919 and presenting himself as more of a moderate when talking to liberals

Question 9

How did Mussolini provide reassurance?

Answer 9

He convinced the liberals that he could deal with the socialists

Question 10

What did those on the left think fascism was a consequence of?

Answer 10

The failure of the liberal state

Question 11

Describe the failings of the liberal state

Answer 11

• It had been foisted upon the Italian people
• They made no attempt to involve the masses in political life
• They willingly repressed popular protests
• Politics was the preserve of a wealthy elite not dedicated to the public good
• Politicians’ primary focus was the acquisition of power and financial gain

Question 12

What does the Marxist historian Gramsci argue fascism was?

Answer 12

A deliberate attempt of the liberals and their conservative and big business allies to crush the growing power of the working class

Question 13

What to deciptors characterised liberalism by 1918 according to Mack Smith?

Answer 13

Weakness and division

Question 14

Why was the introduction of mass democracy detrimental for the liberals?

Answer 14

It meant that parliament was no longer dominated by liberals, but their leaders still insisted on maintaining the old liberal style of politics

Question 15

How does Mack Smith describe post-WWI government?

Answer 15

He said it produced unstable coalitions that were either unable or unwilling to enact reform or direct the forces of the state to uphold law and order

Question 16

What happened to politics as the liberals began to lose control?

Answer 16

It took to the streets

Question 17

How did the liberals convince themselves that the fascists must become a part of government?

Answer 17

Unsettled by their inability to form stable coalitions, the growing fear of socialism and unsure of how to respond to the current societal disorder, they convinced themselves that only a fascist presence could crush the socialists, revitalise parliament and restore confidence in the regime

Question 18

What did the liberal politicians naively believe after Mussolini was appointed PM?

Answer 18

They thought he could be transformed into a ‘normal’ politician

Question 19

What does Martin Clark say about liberal involvement in the rise of fascism?

Answer 19

They argued that they should not be blamed too harshly and the rise of fascism was not inevitable

Question 20

What did leading US historian Alexander De Grand argue led to the rise of fascism?

Answer 20

He argued that WWI worsened class conflict, and fascism grew as a result of the subsequent fear of socialism

Question 21

What terrified the upper and middle classes in 1919?

Answer 21

The socialists becoming the largest political party

Question 22

Why was fascism so appealing to Italian conservatives?

Answer 22

The liberal governments appeared to have few answers to socialist strikes and land seizures. The conservatives therefore looked for a more dynamic alternative who would uphold law and order and protect their interests

Question 23

Why does De Grass see the fascist squads as particularly crucial?

Answer 23

Because they generated new recruits and established the credibilty of the fascist movement

Question 24

List the reasons why the mistakes of Mussolini’s opponents can be seen as the primary cause for the rise of fascism

Answer 24

• The socialists carried out an ill thought out general strike in 1922
• Liberal governments attempted to co-opt and absorb fascism
• The political establishment tolerated the March on Rome
• Many naively saw it as nothing more than a crude antidote to socialism
• Victor Emmanuel caused instability by backtracking on the imposition of martial law
• The Pope supported fascism and even fostered a close personal friendship with Mussolini

Question 25

List the reasons why the weakness of the liberals opponents can be seen as the primary cause for the rise of fascism

Answer 25

• They allowed D’Annunzio to seize Fiume
• The liberals bickered amongst themselves
• Governments had a tendency to be short coalitions
• They allowed several bouts of inflation
• They appeased trade unions and the socialists to the chagrin of industrialists

Question 26

List the reasons why Mussolini’s opportunism can be seen as the primary cause for the rise of fascism

Answer 26

• He abandoned the pact of pacification
• Their mixture of uniforms, parades and marches suggested dynamism
• Made pragmatic use of Il Popolo d’Italia
• Made the successful decision to stand for election in 1921
• Took the initiave to turn his movement into a party by forming the PNF
• Realised that he could fill the much needed role of figurehead for the fascist movement
• He realised that socialist politics was no longer viable and decided to abandon it in 1919

Question 27

List the reasons why the appeal of fascism can be seen as the primary cause for the rise of fascism

Answer 27

• Many liked its anti-socialist stance
• It provided a strong alternative to the current state of industrial unrest
• Resentful groups, paticularly the young, hoped it would smash the old system
• Their violence presented the movement as ruthless; which was appealing to many Italians
• It seemed to offer the only end to class war