Mussolini and government Flashcards
What was M determined to ensure?
That all real power rested in his hands
What would this mean?
That he alone would devise policy and make all major decisions. The King would be an irrelevance, and cabinet, parliament and the institutions of state would be his loyal servants
What had the traditional role of the monarchy in politics been?
They distanced themselves from domestic policy and mainly focused on foreign affairs
What did M realise?
That he completely overawed Emmanuel III
What did he take advantage of this to do?
Deter the monarchy from any political involvement
How did M still follow royal protocol?
He visited the King twice a week
Why did this not really matter?
He was never asked for advice and was only told what M wanted him to hear
Who was M not prepared to share power with?
His ministers
What type of government would there no longer be?
There would be no cabinet style government with ministers jointly deciding and discussing government policy
What would the role of ministers be instead?
To follow M’s instructions unquestioningly
What positions did M hold for the vast majority of his time as dictator?
The most important ministries
What were they?
Foreign affairs, interior and the three armed services
What did he have even less regard for?
Parliament
What had happened to parliament by 1926?
It had lost its ability to discuss policy, debate and amend proposed legislation and criticise the government
What happened to it in the following years?
Its reputation and political significance sank further
What did the ban on opposition parties mean for parliament?
The chamber was dominated by sycophantic fascist deputies who did not even bother to vote formally on M’s legislation, simply shouting their assent
What ceased to exist?
Free elections
Explain what happened to the electoral process?
The electorate was reduced to exclude most of the working classes, all candidates had to be approved by the fascists and the results were shamelessly rigged to show 98% approval for the regime
Why were the working classes excluded from the electorate?
Because they had previously voted for the socialists
What happened to parliament in Jan 1939?
It abolished itself altogether, to be replaced by an equally meaningless chamber of Fasces and Corporations
What other institutions of state became M’s servants?
The civil service, local government, the judiciary and the armed services
What is the civil service?
They advise government ministers on policy and ensure that government policies are carried out
What was he keen to avoid while bringing these institutions under his control?
Provoking a head on clash with these institutions that the radicals in the PNF desired
What kind of desired action would have caused issues?
A wholesale sacking of civil servants and members of the judiciary and army officers corps and their replacement with PNF appointees
What was M also anxious to do when bringing these institutions under his control?
Restrict the power of the party and keep it under his complete command
What did he recognised about most of those in state institutions?
That they were conservatives that were largely sympathetic towards him, but distrustful of the party radicals
What did he do to capitalise on this conservative sympathy?
By using his powers of patronage to reward loyalty and by introducing policies they would support
What did he do at the same time as making these concessions?
He made clear that if his wishes were not supported or obeyed, he would be ruthless in seeking out and destroying opposition
What did M actions mean?
That there was no fascist revolution in government
What did the PNF complain?
That party membership was dangerously low in the institutions of state
Give a statistic to back up this idea
In 1927, only about 15% of the civil service was fascist
Why was this not a problem?
Because they still loyally carried out M’s instructions
Why did fascist membership among civil servants improve in the 1930s
Because of recognition that promotion depended on being a card carrying supporter of the regime
Who did he adopt a similar policy in his dealings with?
The armed services
What common interest did he emphasise that he and the military shared?
Expanding the armed forces and pursuing an aggressive foreign policy
How did he gain support from the military?
By promoting senior generals to the prestigous post of field marshal
What did ambitious officers come to realise?
That a pro fascist attitude and party membership would enormously enhance their prospects of promotion
What did the army resent about fascism?
They pretensions of the fascist militia to be a significant military force
What was it still willing to do?
Give its loyalty to the duce
How was his approach to the judiciary more radical?
Because he purged what he saw as undesirable elements
What were dozens of judges sacked for?
Being insufficiently sympathetic towards fascism or for being too independent of the government
What did he want to ensure about the judiciary?
That it could be relied on to follow government instructions
What happened to the Italian legal system as a result of M’s reforms?
It lost all claim to impartiality
What became common?
Imprisonment without trial
What happened when cases were taken to court?
M occasionally intervened to dictate verdicts and sentences
How was local self government destroyed?
Elected mayors and town councils were replaced by officials appointed from Rome
How did M build up his support and control throughout the country without conflict?
Because it was based on self interest
How did his tactics in pursuing complete control vary?
They varied between aggression and conciliation according to the nature of the institution
Where did he adopt a conciliatory approach?
When dealing with those interest groups whose support he needed to consolidate his regime
Who were these interest groups?
The church and industry
How had M wooed the vatican before becoming PM?
His disavowed his earlier anticlericalism and emphasised that the church had nothing to fear from fascism
What common enemies did M point out that fascism and catholicism had?
Socialism and liberalism
What happened to relations while M was PM?
They steadily warmed
What did this culminate in in 1929?
The Lateran Agreements
What did they finally heal?
They breach between the catholic church and the Italian state
What did the agreements mean for M?
That he could rely on official catholic support for his regime
What did the 1925 Vidoni Palace Pact do?
Banned all socialist and catholic TUs
What happened the following year?
All strikes were outlawed
What were these early concessions instrumental in securing?
Industrialists’ loyalty to the regime
