VRU 2013 Flashcards
Lerer et al: TMJ dysplasia in a Basset; what are the CT characteristics of TMJ dysplasia?
- Flattened of the mandibular fossa
- Irregular joint space
- Secondary osteoarthritis of the TMJ - Sclerosis and flattening of the condylar process and puntate lucencies
- Abnormal periarticular process
- Widening of the joint space
Hart et al: US appearance of outer medulla in dogs without renal dysfunction, Is having a hyperechoic outer renal medulla common in dogs?
Yes, around 30% in this study (45/145)
Hart et al: US appearance of outer medulla in dogs without renal dysfunction, What type of dog had the highest frequency of a hyperechoic outer medulla?
Dogs under 5kg
Hart et al: US appearance of outer medulla in dogs without renal dysfunction, Which type of dog never had a hyperechoic outer medulla?
Dogs larger than 40kg
Hart et al: US appearance of outer medulla in dogs without renal dysfunction, Is there any clinically significance of this sign in dogs?
None.
Hart et al: US appearance of outer medulla in dogs without renal dysfunction, What are the three subdivisions of the kidney?
Inner medulla
Outer medulla
Cortex
Hart et al: US appearance of outer medulla in dogs without renal dysfunction, What is the diffference between a hyperechoic outer medulla vs a medullary rim sign vs medullary band?
Medullary rim is a thin line of increased medullary echogenicity
Hyperechoic outer medulla is a increase of echogenicity between the outer medulla and the cortex.
Medullary band is a hyperechoic band that is more central in the inner medulla (LEPTO!!)
Kim et al: Comparison of CTA and US in detecting PSS in dogs: What was the significantly higher in detecting PSS?
Sensitivity of CTA (96%) vs US (68%)
Kim et al: Comparison of CTA and US in detecting PSS in dogs: How many more times was CTA more likely to correctly ascertain the presence or absence of a PSS?
5.5x!
Kim et al: Comparison of CTA and US in detecting PSS in dogs: What co-morbitity is was noted in 4/5 dogs on CTA and only 1/5 dogs on US?
multiple acquired shunts.
Grant et al: VHS in eight dog breeds: What factors had influence on the VHS?
Anomalous vertebrae
BCS
Grant et al: VHS in eight dog breeds: What breeds had VHS signifciantly greater than 9.7 +/- 0.5?
Pug, Poms, Bulldog and Bostons
Secrest et al: Furosemid and ureteral visualization on CT extretoary urogram: At what time was there a significant difference in furosemide and no furosemide on visualization of the ureters?
3 mins post injection.
At 10 min there was no different or no advantage.
Secrest et al: Furosemide and ureteral visualization on CT extretoary urogram: What dose was used of furorsemide?
4mg/kg
Hoey et al: Evaluation of GI tract in dogs using CT: Are you able to distinguish between gastrointestinal segments and gastrointestinal walls on CTA?
Yes… gastrointestinal segments (62%) means that you could see the entire width of the jejunum (serosa to serosa)
Gastrointestinal walls (78%) means that you can see one side from another (serosa to mucosa)
Hoey et al: Evaluation of GI tract in dogs using CT: Are you able to see wall layering on CT?
Only in about 22%
Hoey et al: Evaluation of GI tract in dogs using CT: What are the measurements associated with a normal GI tract on CT?
Same as radiographs and US thickeness.
Torad et al: US characteristics of salivary mucoceles in dogs: What was the difference between the characteristics of the mucoceles on US based on time?
2 wks - round hyperechoic structure with a large amount of anechoic fluid
1-2 months - less anechoic fluid and the overall appearance was heterogenous
2 months - grainy/mottled appearance and further decrease in anechoic content
3 months - hyperechoic with distal acoustic shadowing
Bargellini et al: Contrast-enhanced US adrenal gland with PDH: What is the normal contrast enhancement of an adrenal gland? PDH adrenal gland
Normal - Medulla first than outward
PDH - rapid, chaotic and both medulla and cortex at the same time
- Twice ass high of peak perfusion
- 2-4x the blood volume.
Anwer et al: MRI features of intracranial granular cell tumors: What are the key features of a granular cell tumor?
- Well defined
- Extra axial
- Plaque like - involving the meninges
- Cerebrum, falx cerebri or ventral floor
- T1W hyperintense /T2 iso/hyperintese
- Moderate to severe peritumoral edema and mass effect
Anwer et al: MRI features of intracranial granular cell tumors: What are the ddx for a T1W hyperintense mass in the brain?
Choroid plexus tumor
Ependymal tumor
Glioma
Meningiomas (19%)
Melanomas (highly T1W hyperintense)
Scrivani et al: T2W MRI measurement of the optic nerve: What was different between the dogs with and without presumed intracranial hypertension?
Optic nerve sheath diameter and body weight.
Normal size of the optic nerve sheath was 1-4mm.
What are four reasons for upper airway obstruction in cats?
Neoplasia (lymphoma)
Granulomatous inflammation
Laryngotracheitis
Larygneal paralysis (lead tox, neuromucsular)
What are radiographic signs of laryngeal obstruction?
Everted saccules
Increased soft tissue opacity
Tracheal narrowing
Larygneal caudal displacement
Pharynx dilated
Vignoli et al: Whole body CT for skeletal and cardiac mets in dogs and cats: Where are the most common locations for muscle mets?
Epaxial/paraspinal muscles
Thoracic wall
Vignoli et al: Whole body CT for skeletal and cardiac mets in dogs and cats: What types of cancer were noted to have muscle mets?
Sarcomas (mostly hemangio but even a fibrosarc got in the game)
Carcinomas (mostly adenocarcinoma but TTC and SCC too)
One lymphom in a cat.
Vignoli et al: Whole body CT for skeletal and cardiac mets in dogs and cats: What were the main clinical signs for muscle mets?
Lameness
Reluctance to move
Anorexia
Dyspnea (pain?)
12/27 animals did not show any clinical signs
Kirberger et al: CT and rad features of Spirocercosis in dogs: What were the top features of aortic lesions in dogs with spirocerosis?
Aortic mineralization (between T4 and T11)
Aortic aneurysms
Aortic thrombi.
Ciasca et al: Measurement of SI diameter increases diagnostic accuracy?: What does a SI/L5 ratio give for sensitivity and specifcity of a intestinal obstruction?
66%
Therefore this study concluded that it is not helpful to measure.
Reese et al: Effects of sevoflurane anesthesia and blood donation on US appearance of cat spleens: What was the conlcusion?
Sevoflurane and blood donation do not subjectively alter splenic dimensions, echogenicity or echotesture in a normal cat.
Normal height is 8.2mm +/- 1.4mm
Reese et al: Effects of sevoflurane anesthesia and blood donation on US appearance of cat spleens: What was the echogenicity of the spleen compared to the renal cortex? How did this change with male cats?
Hyperechoic
Male cats 77% were isoechoic to the left renal cortex.
Tyson et al: Feline renal volume using CT: What type of measuring method was used in this study and how did it compare to the US measurements using the elispode method?
CT using the hand traced ROIs with the voxel count method
More accurate than the US method using the elipsode method which underestimated the renal volume by a median of 19%.
De Bakker et al: Rads of primary and concomitant flexor enthesopathy of the dog: Can radiographs distinugish between primary and concomitant flexor enthesopathy?
No
De Bakker et al: Rads of primary and concomitant flexor enthesopathy of the dog: What were the radiographic signs for flexor enthesopathy?
irregular medial humeral epicondyle
Spur
Calcified body.
De Bakker et al: Rads of primary and concomitant flexor enthesopathy of the dog: What were the elbow disorders present in concomitant flexor enthesopathy?
MCP disease
OCD
UAP
Incongruity
Osteoarthritis and sclerosis of the subtrochlear notch region.
Choi et al: Liver size on rads in pekingese dogs: What is the difference with pekingese dogs and other breeds when it comes to liver size?
Pekingese dogs have smaller livers
Recommend using a 4.64x the length of T11 as normal pekingese dog liver (from the base of the CVC on right lateral projections
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: what modalities had the highest specificity and sensitivity?
CT had the highest specificity (100%)
MRI had the highest sensitivity (93%)
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: What modality most commonly detected tumor capsule disruption with invasion of the surrounding structures?
MRI
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: Thyroid carcinoma was what intensity on MRI?
Hyperintense in all sequences.
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: What was the most common clinical signs?
- Coughing
- Dyspnea
- Gagging
- Stertor/Stridor.
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: Common characteristics of these thyroid masses?
- Unilateral
- heterogeneous
- Dorsolateral to the trachea
- Immediately caudal to the larynx
- Strongly vascularized
- Mulitcavitated
- Mineralized over half
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: Thyroid carcinomas had what type of attenuation compared to normal thyroid lobes?
Hypoattenuating or lower HU
Lower in both precontrast (56 HU vs 108)
and post (132 vs 169 HU)
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: Is airway obstruction more frequent in dogs with thyroid carcinomas vs carotid body tumors?
Carotid body tumors.
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: What did the three ectopic thyroid carcinomas do?
They were midline and invaded the hyoid bones
Taeymans et al: MRI, US, CT features of thyroid carcinoma: Which modality had the lowest sensitivity and specificity?
US
Manley et al: MRI of the canine abdomen: What were the sequences with the highest diagnostic quality for the cranial abdomen?
Dorsal T2 TSE with fat sat and breath hold
Trans T1 turbo fast low-angle shot gradient echo with breath hold
Dorsal T2 half fourier acquisition with respiratoy navigation
Gaitero et al: Comparison of cranial thoracic IVD herniation in GSD: What disc spaces were more likely to herniate and/or compress in GSD?
T2-3 adn T4-5 are more likely to compress in GSD
T3-4 is more likely to herniate and compress in GSD
Imaging T2-3 is important in GSD dogs with T3-L3 neurologic signs
Gaitero et al: Comparison of cranial thoracic IVD herniation in GSD: In the T1-T9 region how did GSD compare to other large breed dogs?
GSD had high scores for compression and herniation
Rowe et al: Whole body distribution of 3-deoxy 3-fluorothymidine (FLT) in cats: What is this used for and where were notable areas of uptake?
Used as a proliferation tracer to characterize neoplasia and bone marrow function
Notable areas of uptake include: hematopoietic bone marrow, intestinal tract, urinary and hepatobiliary systems
Anson et al: US of the feline brachial plexus: The roots of the brachial plexus and the nerves of the thoracic limb appear like what on US?
Hypoechoic with a hyperechoic rim
Anson et al: US of the feline brachial plexus: Where were the median and ulnar nerve located?
The proximal and middle humeral approaches
Anson et al: US of the feline brachial plexus: Where was the superficial branch of the radial nerve?
Lateral aspect of the distal humerus approach.
King et al: MRI of metacarpo/tarsophalangeal in a horse: Lameness was more commonly bilateral or unilateral?
Bilateral
King et al: MRI of metacarpo/tarsophalangeal in a horse: What were the most common primary abnormalities?
Oblique distal sesmoidean ligament demitis
Straight distal sesamoidean ligament desmitis
These = 94/232 horses
First bony lesion was chronic subchondral bone injuries (12/232 horses)
162/232 had soft tissue abnormalities.
Werpy et al: Varying echo time on T2 FSE with magic angle in the collateral lig of the distal interphaleangeal joint of horses: What angle were all limbs placed?
16º
Werpy et al: Varying echo time on T2 FSE with magic angle in the collateral lig of the distal interphaleangeal joint of horses: Where was reversal of the magic angle effect noted at?
140ms TE
Werpy et al: Varying echo time on T2 FSE with magic angle in the collateral lig of the distal interphaleangeal joint of horses: Recommended limit for TE considering clinical imaging?
120ms
Because too long TE can decrease the sensitivity for small or low contrast lesions (increasing TE decreases signal-to-noise raito)
Can meingoencephaloceles become infected by rhinitis?
Yes.
What is excitotoxic neuronal injury mean?
Injury secondary to seizures in the brain… see in the hippocampal region
What are the differentials for a intra-axial contrast enhancing mass?
Glioma
primitive neuroectodermal tumor
Mets
Round cell tumor
Nerve shealth tumor
meningoangiomatosis
Schwannomas (benign)
Hemangioma
What are the differentials for a extra-axial contrast enhancing mass?
Meningioma
Lymphoma
Histiocytic
Mets
Granular cell tumor
Hemangioblastoma
What is the common characteristic for liver malignancy in CEUS?
Hypoechoic compared to the normal liver during PEAK ENHANCEMENT.
What is this?
OCD and osteodysplasia of the supra glenoid tubricle.
Partial fusion was noted after 30 days of cage rest
- Pathophys is like Osgood-schlatter disease
Pivetta et al: Prevalence of lateral ventricle asymmetry in Brain MRI: What was the summary of this study?
That there was no significant different between normal dogs and dogs with idiopathic epilepsy when it comes to asymmetry of the lateral ventricle
Thus this is an incidental finding.
Kennihan et al: MRI signs vs histo in canine meningal disease: Which sequence was the best for looking at the meninges?
T1W post and subtraction were the same
T2W FLAIR did not perform well
Kennihan et al: MRI signs vs histo in canine meningal disease: What was the summary of MRI when diagnosing meningeal pathology in dogs?
MRI had low sensitivity especially when looking at the leptomeninges.
Kennihan et al: MRI signs vs histo in canine meningal disease: What are the pachymeninges and what are the leptomeninges?
Pachy - dura and periosteum of the inner skull
Lepto - pia and arachnoid.
Schimdt et al: Closure times for the cranial base synchondroses in dogs: What was found in the study that may explain the skull phenotype of CKCS and brachycephalic dogs?
Premature closure of the spheno-occipiatl synchondrosis.
- Much faster in CKCS vs brachy and mesaticephalic dogs
- Brachy were faster than mesaticephalic dogs
No differencee in age, or gender
Bentley et al: Ependymal and ventricular MRI changes with CNS blasto: What were the common MRI characterisitics?
Periventricular edema
Periventricular and meningeal contrast enhancement
Ventriculomegaly (bilateral)
Periventricular lesion MOST COMMON in the rostral horn of the lateral and 3rd ventricles
Old findings were - Extra-axial mass that extends from sino-nasal or retrobulbar locations.
Peak et al: Prevalance of tibial tuberosity radiolucencies in dogs: What is it and what is associated with?
Retained cartilage core seen in 21.5% of dogs. MOST were bilateral
Associated with medial patellar luxation
It has NO assoication with CCL rupture.
Small dogs (except pit bulls, labs and boxers and bulldogs)
Pollard et al: Corn oil administration on conspicuity of US SI lesions in dogs iwht lymphangiectasia: At what time were the jejunal hyperechoic mucosal striations best identified after corn oil administeration orally? What was the dose?
60-90min
1-2ml/kg
Pollard et al: Corn oil administration on conspicuity of US SI lesions in dogs iwht lymphangiectasia: What did administrating corn syrup do to the conspicuity of the US SI lesions? What lesions were present and what does this tell us?
Increased the conspicuity of the jejunal hyperechoic mucosal striations.
Increased mucosal echogenicity in both normal and abnormal dogs.
Parallel hyperechoic mucosal line was present in both normal and abnormal dogs.
Fatty meals effect normal appearance of the mucosa of the intestines in normal dogs.
Cannon et al: CT characterisitic of bronchiectasis in dogs: What were the qualitative CT characteristics of bronchietasis?
- Lack of peripheral airway tapering
- Lobar consolidation
- Bronchial wall thickening
- Bronchial lumen occlusion
SOME of the bronchiectic airways had a bronchoarterial ratio <2.0 (1.4) so this does not exclude bronchietasis.
On rads
- Lack of airway tapering
Gigilo et al: Radiographic characterization of presumed plate-like atelectasis in 75 dogs and 15 cats: What projection was plate-like atelectasis commonly found in?
Left lateral
Gigilo et al: Radiographic characterization of presumed plate-like atelectasis in 75 dogs and 15 cats: Where in the thorax was it commonly located?
Cranial thorax and was oriented in a dorsocranial to ventrocaudal direction (75%)
Gigilo et al: Radiographic characterization of presumed plate-like atelectasis in 75 dogs and 15 cats: What is the purposed mechanism for plate-like atelectasis?
Atelectasis that track along the sublobar lung lobe separation
Area of hypoventilation
Decrease localized surfacetant.
Dennler et al: CTA and CT of aelurostrongylus abstrusus: What is the distribution and where do these worms live?
Worldwide distribution
Live in the terminal bronchioles and alveoli
Dennler et al: CTA and CT of aelurostrongylus abstrusus: Severity of clinical signs was dependent on what? What clincal signs can be seen?
Clinical signs dependent on dose (experimentally infected)
Pulmonary hemorrhage, abscess, pyothorax, pleuritis
Dennler et al: CTA and CT of aelurostrongylus abstrusus: What animal does it infect?
cats
Dennler et al: CTA and CT of aelurostrongylus abstrusus: What are the experimental infection of cats look like on CT and rads?
Dose-dependent nodular and unstructured changes THROUGHOUT the lungs
TB lymphadenopathy
Bronchial thickening with adjacent interstitial changes.
NO Arterial involvement.
Silva et al: CT and CT arthrography of the canine shoulder: What significantly improved the visualization of the soft tissue shoulder structures?
Extended position of the leg
Silva et al: CT and CT arthrography of the canine shoulder: Shoulder cartilage was best seen on what scan and in what position?
In the CT arthrography
Flexed or neutral position
Silva et al: CT and CT arthrography of the canine shoulder: What muscles could not be identified?
Teres minor tendon and cracobrachialis muscle.
What radioligands are used to investigate the brain tissue? What is the difference in uptake?
99mTc - HMPAO and 99mTc - ECD
ECD - has more infinity for the subcortical region
HMPAO - More infinity for the cerebellum
What drains the blood from the brain?
Begins with the superficial and deep cerebral veins
Than
Drains into the dural venous sinuses.
Than
Maxillary v, internal jugular v and vertebral veins
Internal vertebral venous plexus.
Maddox et al: CT shoulders and clinical findings in dogs: What type of dogs had increased risk of OC lesions?
Border collies
Dogs with shoulder pain
Maddox et al: CT shoulders and clinical findings in dogs: Where was mineralization most commonly identified? And who were at an increased risk for seeing this?
Supraspinatus muslce and tendon
Intact females were at an increased risk for this lesion
Maddox et al: CT shoulders and clinical findings in dogs: What animals were at an increased risk of osteoarthritis?
Border collies and older dogs.
What is the radiographic signs of fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva in cats? What are some DDX?
Mineralization of the muscles and fascia
Look like an owl disease - ossifying its soft tissues.
DDX: calcinosis circumscripta, metastatic calcification, hypervit A or D.
Suran et al: Ferret lymphoma characteristics: What are the characteristics?
- Intra-abdominal lymphadenopathy
- Splenomegaly
- Peritoneal effusion
- Two had expansile lytic lesions in the vertebrae
What can an umbilical abscess cause?
UTI
Sepsis
Ureteral obstruction
Aortic aneurysms
Liver abscess
Meningititis
Rossi et al: CT ectopic thyroid neoplasia: What characteristics are seen in this etiology?
- Lytic basihyoid bone
- High vascularization
- Central hypoperfused areas
- Infiltration of the larygeal wall (all of them)
Shape was oval to bilobed.
Rossi et al: CT ectopic thyroid neoplasia: Where was the common site for mets?
Retropharyngeal LN
Lung
Lautenschlager et al: CT and 99mTc pertechnetate scintigraphy in hyperthyroid cats: What can CT be reliable in correctly identifying?
CT can reliably identify the more active thyroid lobe. (by size and echogencity).
IT cannot differentiate unilateral vs bilateral disease
Lautenschlager et al: CT and 99mTc pertechnetate scintigraphy in hyperthyroid cats: What is the common attenuation pattern of the hyperthyroid thyroid lobes on CT? Where are the thyroids located?
Heterogeneous attenuation pattern with a mean HU of 61.6. (normal is homogeneously hyperattenuating (123.2 HU is normal attenuation value))
Dorsolateral to the trachea between the 2nd and 4th cervical vertebrae.
Ruth et al: Effects of anisotrophy and spatial compounding on renal cotical echogenicity in dogs: what effects the echogenicity of the cortex?
Angle of the probe (insonation) to the tubules
90º is echogenic
0º is less echogenic
Citi et al: Micronodular US lesions in the colonic submucosa of cats and dogs: What structures do these likely represent and what does it indicate?
Intraparietal lymphoid follicles (most resolved)
May indicate colonic inflammatory disease in dogs and cats. (most cats were presented for diarrhea)
Feeney et al: US and FNA of peritoneal and mesenteric disease: What criteria was more associated with peritoneal neoplasia?
- Organ associated masses or nodules
- Aggregated bowel
- Peritoneal thickening
Feeney et al: US and FNA of peritoneal and mesenteric disease: What criteria was more associated with peritoneal inflammatory disease?
Localized
Severely complex fluid collections
Feeney et al: US and FNA of peritoneal and mesenteric disease: What was the diagnostic yield of peritoneal FNA?
72% - so worth your while
Rousset et al: MRI characteristics of injection site sarcoma in 19 cats: Multiple tumors were more likely to have had what previous?
Excisional biopsy
Rousset et al: MRI characteristics of injection site sarcoma in 19 cats: What are the characterisitcs?
- All are hyperintense on T1 and T2
- Mineralization was associated with size (larger had more mineralization)
- Marked heterogeneous CE
- Infiltrative margins and presence of T2 peripheral hyperintense zone was more prevalent following excisional biopsies while cavitation were more prevalent following incisional biopsy.
Piesnack et al: Does 0.5T or 3.0T affect microchips?
No
Beukers et al: CT characterisitics of presumed normal canine abdominal lymph nodes: What were the lymph nodes that were seen in all dogs?
Left and right medial iliac
At least two jejunal lymph nodes
Beukers et al: CT characterisitics of presumed normal canine abdominal lymph nodes: What made it possible to see significantly more lymph nodes?
Abdominal fat content.
Beukers et al: CT characterisitics of presumed normal canine abdominal lymph nodes: What is the normal before and after contrast mean attenuation of lymph nodes in the abdomen?
37 HU pre-contrast
109 HU post-contrast Homogeneous CE
Shanaman et al: Comparison of modalities in dogs with acute abdominal signs: Ultrasound understimated what of lesions compared to CE-MDCT?
Size and number of lesions
Shanaman et al: Comparison of modalities in dogs with acute abdominal signs: CEUS was able to detect what compared to CE-MDCT?
Bowel and pancreatic perfusion deficits
Shanaman et al: Comparison of modalities in dogs with acute abdominal signs: What was the accuracy for differentiating surgical vs non-surgical conditions for CT, US and rads?
100% CT
94% US
94% Rads
Gerlach et al: MRI of pulp in normal and diseased equine teeth: What was the reliable criterion for diagnosing dental disease on MRI?
Enlarged blurred pulp with low signal intesity.
Partial and complete absence of the pulp was seen in both diseased and non-diseased teeth.
Intercarpal ligments can be grouped into three groups…what are they?
- Dorsal
- Interosseous
- Palmar
Dorsal and interosseous are smaller and maintain alignment
Palmar intercarpal ligaments prevent hyperextension.
Most commonly talked about is the medial and lateral palmar intercarpal ligament. And these are hard to see on arthroscopy so they need imaging.
What intercarpal ligments can bee identified on CT arthrography?
Lateral and medial palmar intercarpal ligments
Radiocarpal and transverse intercarpal ligaments (multiple trans lig. All inbetween the carpal bones)
palmar carpal ligamnet
Communication with the synovium and the proximal suspensory was also noted.
Beccati et al: US vs Rads when detecting trochlear ridge OCD: What radiographic view should be used?
Lateral
DM-P60ºL
Beccati et al: US vs Rads when detecting trochlear ridge OCD:What modality was the preferred mehod for predicting presence and severity of OC lesions on the trochlear ridges?
US
100% sensitivity
82% specificity
Excellent agreement with arthroscopy.
Rads are not far behind though
Can a lung herinate into the bronchi?
Yes.. it did in a gecko. Caused hyperinflation of the lung and displacement of the esophagus.
Differentials for unstructured interstitial disease?
- Fibrosis
- non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema
- inflammation
- PTE
- Toxin
- Neoplasia
- Hemorrhage
- SIRS, Sepsis, TRALI
Where is the most common place for a hydrated nucleus pulposus extrusion or discal cyst?
Cervical region C3-C6.
Choi et al: What is the lower limits of diphargmatic exursion on US in mm?
2.85-2.98mm during normal breathing
