Topic 8 Flashcards
Language
Communication of information through symbols arranged according to rules
Central to communication, also closely tied to the way we think and understand the world
Phonemess: the ingredients
Categories of sound our vocal apparatus produces
Most words are made of 2 +
Can be spelled differently
In English, 26 letters, 40 - 45 phonemes
Cross-linguistic differences
The Hawaiian language has few phonemes
Japan has a single sound category that encompasses both L & R sounds
Morphemes
The menu items
The smallest unit of meaning in a language
Most morphemes are words
Some aren’t words but modify the meaning of other words
Syntax
Putting together the meal
Set of rules of language in which we construct a sentence
Language acquisition & deprivation
Critical period
- Proficiency at acquiring langue is maximal early in life
The younger you are the better you will lean a new language
Language development: Babbling
From 3 months - 1 year
1st babble all sounds but later specialize in own language (by 6 - 8 months)
Born with the ability to recognize all phonemes, but eventually, brains prune away sounds it doesn’t need
Language development: words & phrases
Around ages 1 to 2, children start combining words to create simple two-word phrases
By age 2, ~ 50 vocabulary words, 6 months later, several hundred
Language development: sentences & more
By age 3 make plurals and use past tens BUT overgeneralize
Acquire all basic rules by 5
How do children acquire language?
Leaning theory approaches
- Following principles of reinforcement & conditioning
- Children are praised for using language
- The more parents speak to children the more proficient
- Doesn’t really explain language rules
Nativist
- Children born with basic knowledge of language
- Language organ - language acquisition device - pre-programmed
- Gene related to dev’t of language abilities
- Difficult to falsify
Language acquisition continued
Interactionist
- Pre programed with hardware, developed software though exposure & environment
- Adults as directors for language acquisition
- The environment produces differences in language
Guugu Yimithir language
Tradition language of the Guugu Yimithir people of far north Queensland
No words for left or right
Communicate using the cardinal direction
How does language shape our thinking?
Linguistic relativity
- The language we speak influences how we think, understand & perceive the world
Examples
- Egocentric vs. geocentric
- Time perception & metaphors
- Language & blame
Thinking
Manipulation of mental representation of information
Cognitive economy / cognitive misers
Top-down processes
Streamlines cognitive functioning by utilizing pre-existing knowledge to fill in the gaps
- Less cognitive effort, speeds up cognitive processing, helps reduce the complexity of new experiences
Concepts
Concepts
Our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties
A simple concept of a dog
- Four legs
- Tail
- Furry
- Barks
- Loyal
- Good pet
Prototypes
Best or most typical example of the concept
But can lead to biased judgments reinforce stereotypes, and overlook information that doesn’t match
Reasoning / Problem-solving
Algorithm
- a rule that if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to the problem
- Only work for a well-defined problem
- Time-consuming
Heuristic
- General problem-solving framework
Why are heuristics useful (and necessary)?
Impossible to always consider all the information
Reduce mental effort ned to make decisions
Simplify the decision-making process
Are often correct
Representativeness heuristic
Basing judgment on similar to an abstract ideal, expectation, or stereotype
Base rate fallacy
- Base rates aren’t sufficiently taken into account
Real-world application of the representativeness heuristic
Jury decision when evaluating the guilt of a defendant/credibility of a victim
Doctors given you a diagnosis
Choosing a restaurant
Stereotyping in social interaction
Availability Heuristic
Basing estimates of frequency or probability on the ease of which examples come to mind
Anchoring Heuristic
Relying on a single piece of information (the anchor) to inform decision-making
The downside of heuristics
This can lead to costly error & bias, especially in high-stakes circumstances
Stereotypes and prejudice
Framing
The way a question/statement is formulated can influence decision-making
Gain vs. loss framing, survival vs. morality framing
Obstacles to problem-solving
Mental sets
- Becoming stitched in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhabiting our ability to generate alternatives
Function fixedness
- Difficult to conceptualize that an object typically used for one purpose can used for another
Other biases that lead to eros in judgment and decision-making
Hindsight bias
Confirmation bias
Tunnel vision
Hindsight bias
Our tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted something after it has already occurred
People think their judgments are better than it is
Disconnect clouds judgment & ability to learn from past mistakes
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that supports a person’s prior beliefs (and distort what doesn’t fit)
Tunnel vision
- Focus on information that supports a particular point of view
Confirmation bias & tunnel vision in police investigations
Confirmation bias
- detective believes a suspect is guilty, focuses only on evidence that points toward them, downplays or disregards evidence that exonerates them
Tunnel vision:
- The detective becomes fixated on one suspect because of behavior or initial circumstantial evidence (e.g., suspect seems detached) – and focuses the investigation on this person
