Topic 8

Question 1

Language

Answer 1

Communication of information through symbols arranged according to rules

Central to communication, also closely tied to the way we think and understand the world

Question 2

Phonemess: the ingredients

Answer 2

Categories of sound our vocal apparatus produces

Most words are made of 2 +

Can be spelled differently

In English, 26 letters, 40 - 45 phonemes

Question 3

Cross-linguistic differences

Answer 3

The Hawaiian language has few phonemes

Japan has a single sound category that encompasses both L & R sounds

Question 4

Morphemes

Answer 4

The menu items

The smallest unit of meaning in a language

Most morphemes are words

Some aren’t words but modify the meaning of other words

Question 5

Syntax

Answer 5

Putting together the meal

Set of rules of language in which we construct a sentence

Question 6

Language acquisition & deprivation

Answer 6

Critical period
* Proficiency at acquiring langue is maximal early in life

The younger you are the better you will lean a new language

Question 7

Language development: Babbling

Answer 7

From 3 months - 1 year

1st babble all sounds but later specialize in own language (by 6 - 8 months)

Born with the ability to recognize all phonemes, but eventually, brains prune away sounds it doesn’t need

Question 8

Language development: words & phrases

Answer 8

Around ages 1 to 2, children start combining words to create simple two-word phrases

By age 2 ~ 50 vocabulary words, 6 months later, several hundred

Question 9

Language development: sentences & more

Answer 9

By age 3 make plurals and use past tens BUT overgeneralize

Acquire all basic rules by 5

Question 10

How do children acquire language?

Answer 10

Leaning theory approaches
* Following principles of reinforcement & conditioning
* Children are praised for using language
* The more parents speak to children the more proficient
* Doesn’t really explain language rules

Nativist
* Children born with basic knowledge of language
* Language organ - language acquisition device - pre-programmed
* Gene related to dev’t of language abilities
* Difficult to falsify

Question 11

Language acquisition continued

Answer 11

Interactionist
* Pre programed with hardware, developed software though exposure & environment
* Adults as directors for language acquisition
* The environment produces differences in language

Question 12

Guugu Yimithir language

Answer 12

Tradition language of the Guugu Yimithir people of far north Queensland

No words for left or right

Communicate using the cardinal direction

Question 13

How does language shape our thinking?

Answer 13

Linguistic relativity
* The language we speak influences how we think, understand & perceive the world

Examples
* Egocentric vs. geocentric
* Time perception & metaphors
* Language & blame

Question 14

Thinking

Answer 14

Manipulation of mental representation of information

Cognitive economy / cognitive misers

Question 15

Top-down processes

Answer 15

Streamlines cognitive functioning by utilizing pre-existing knowledge to fill in the gaps
* Less cognitive effort, speeds up cognitive processing, helps reduce the complexity of new experiences
Concepts

Question 16

Concepts

Answer 16

Our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties

A simple concept of a dog
* Four legs
* Tail
* Furry
* Barks
* Loyal
* Good pet

Question 17

Prototypes

Answer 17

Best or most typical example of the concept

But can lead to biased judgments reinforce stereotypes, and overlook information that doesn’t match

Question 18

Reasoning / Problem-solving

Answer 18

Algorithm
* a rule that if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to the problem
* Only work for a well-defined problem
* Time-consuming

Heuristic
* General problem-solving framework

Question 19

Why are heuristics useful (and necessary)?

Answer 19

Impossible to always consider all the information

Reduce mental effort ned to make decisions

Simplify the decision-making process

Are often correct

Question 20

Representativeness heuristic

Answer 20

Basing judgment on similar to an abstract ideal, expectation, or stereotype

Base rate fallacy
* Base rates aren’t sufficiently taken into account

Question 21

Real-world application of the representativeness heuristic

Answer 21

Jury decision when evaluating the guilt of a defendant/credibility of a victim

Doctors given you a diagnosis

Choosing a restaurant

Stereotyping in social interaction

Question 22

Availability Heuristic

Answer 22

Basing estimates of frequency or probability on the ease of which examples come to mind

Question 23

Anchoring Heuristic

Answer 23

Relying on a single piece of information (the anchor) to inform decision-making

Question 24

The downside of heuristics

Answer 24

This can lead to costly error & bias, especially in high-stakes circumstances

Stereotypes and prejudice

Question 25

Framing

Answer 25

The way a question/statement is formulated can influence decision-making

Gain vs. loss framing, survival vs. morality framing

Question 26

Obstacles to problem-solving

Answer 26

Mental sets
* Becoming stitched in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhabiting our ability to generate alternatives

Function fixedness
* Difficult to conceptualize that an object typically used for one purpose can used for another

Question 27

Other biases that lead to eros in judgment and decision-making

Answer 27

Hindsight bias

Confirmation bias

Tunnel vision

Question 28

Hindsight bias

Answer 28

Our tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted something after it has already occurred

People think their judgments are better than it is

Disconnect clouds judgment & ability to learn from past mistakes

Question 29

Confirmation Bias

Answer 29

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that supports a person’s prior beliefs (and distort what doesn’t fit)

Tunnel vision
* Focus on information that supports a particular point of view

Question 30

Confirmation bias & tunnel vision in police investigations

Answer 30

Confirmation bias
* detective believes a suspect is guilty, focuses only on evidence that points toward them, downplays or disregards evidence that exonerates them

Tunnel vision:
* The detective becomes fixated on one suspect because of behavior or initial circumstantial evidence (e.g., suspect seems detached) – and focuses the investigation on this person