The Respiratory System 3 Flashcards
1
Q
describe INTERNAL RESPIRATION
A
- have CAPILLARY GAS EXCHANGE within the BODY’S TISSUES
- our PARTIAL PRESSURES and DIFFUSION GRADIENTS—are now REVERSED compared to EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
2
Q
describe OXYGEN TRANSPORT
A
OXYGEN + HEMOGLOBIN:
- each Hb molecule has FOUR POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS—all containing a IRON-CONTAINING HEME GROUP
- each HB can transport FOUR OXYGEN MOLECULES
- OXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbO2):
- HEMOGLOBIN-O2 COMBINATION
- REDUCED HEMOGLOBIN (DEOXYHEMOGLOBIN) (HHb):
- hemoglobin that has released OXYGEN
3
Q
definition of the HEMOGLOBIN OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVE
A
- DISSOCIATION CURVE:
- the RATE OF LOADING and UNLOADING of OXYGEN is REGULATED to ENSURE ADEQUATE OXYGEN DELIVERY TO CELLS
- the specific curve is S-SHAPED; the HEMOGLOBIN SATURATION PLOTTED AGAINST Po2 is NOT LINEAR
4
Q
what are the VARIABLE FACTORS for the DISSOCATION CURVE?
A
- VARIABLE FACTORS (shifts CURVE TO RIGHT);
- Po2
- TEMPERATURE (increase)
- BLOOD pH (decrease)
- Pco2 (increase)
- DPG (increase)
5
Q
describe the INFLUENCE of PO2 on HEMOGLOBIN SATURATION
A
- IN ARTERIAL BLOOD:
- Po2 - 100 mm Hg
- contains around 20 ml OXYGEN per 100 ml blood (20% volume)
- HEMOGLOBIN is 98% SATURATED
- IN VENOUS BLOOD:
- Po2 - 40 mm Hg
- contains around 15% volume of oxygen
- HEMOGLOBIN is 75% SATURATED
- VENOUS RESERVE:
- oxygen remaining in venous blood
6
Q
what happens if our HEMOGLOBIN is LESS SATURATED?
A
- known as the BOHR EFFECT; begins to ENHANCE OXYGEN UNLOADING to where it is needed the MOST
7
Q
definition of HYPOXIA
A
the INADEQUATE OXYGEN DELIVERY to the TISSUES; also known as CYANOSIS
8
Q
describe CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
A
*CO2 transported into BLOOD in THREE FORMS:
- DISSOLVED IN PLASMA as PCO2 (7-10%)
- BOUND TO GLOBIN (part of HEMOGLOBIN) (20%) – CARAMINOHEMOGLOBIN
- TRANSPORT OF BICARBONATE IONS HCO3 in PLASMA (70%)
9
Q
describe the TRANSPORT and EXCHANGE of Co2 + O2 in SYSTEMIC CAPILLARIES
A
- begins after HCO3 is created—begins to DIFFUSE from RBCS into PLASMA
- process is balanced through the CHLORIDE SHIFT;
- CL moves into RBCS from PLASMA as HCO3 OUTRUSHES
10
Q
describe the TRANSPORT and EXCHANGE of CO2 + O2 in PULMONARY CAPILLARIES
A
- opposite processes happen
- HCO3 MOVES IN RBCS while CL MOVES OUT of RBCS back into the PLASMA
- HCO3 binds with another HYDROGEN to create H2CO3
- split by CARBONIC ANHYDRASE into CO2 and WATER
- CO2 diffuses into the ALVEOLI
11
Q
definition of HALDANE EFFECT
A
- OXYGENATION of BLOOD WITHIN THE LUNGS — begins to DISPLACE CARBON DIOXIDE from HB (INCREASES REMOVAL OF CO2)
- also reduces affinity for carbon dioxide in oxygenated blood
- known as the BOHR EFFECT (oxygen dissociates from Hb due to more co2)
12
Q
describe the CARBONIC-ACID-BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
A
- helps blood RESIST CHANGES in PH
- HCO3 acts as the ALKALINE RESERVE for the system
13
Q
how can one ADJUST the CARBONIC-ACID-BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
A
- CHANGES IN RESPIRATORY RATE + DEPTH can affect BLOOD ph:
- SLOW SHALLOW BREATHING = INCREASE in CO2 in BLOOD = DROP in PH
- RAPID DEEP BREATHING = DECREASE in CO2 in BLOOD = RISE in PH
- CHANGES IN VENTILATION:
- helps in adjusting pH due to issues with metabolism
- BREATHING—super important for body’s ACID-BASE BALANCE
14
Q
what are RESPIRATORY RHYTHMS regulated by (3)?
A
- HIGHER BRAIN RECEPTORS
- CHEMORECEPTORS
- OTHER REFLEXES
15
Q
describe the NEURONAL MECHANISMS
A
control of respiration involving the NEURONS in the RETICULAR FORMATION of the MEDULLA + PONS
- MEDULLA RESPIRATORY CENTER (within the MEDULLA OBLONGATA)
-
PRG (PONTINE RESPIRATORY GROUP) (within the PONS)
- important for inhalation and exhalation while ACTIVE—ex. during exercise, sleeping, or talking
16
Q
describe the MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTERS
A
MRC:
- CLUSTERED NEURONS in the MEDULLA
17
Q
describe the VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (VRG)
A
- responsible for MOTOR CONTROL of INSPIRATORY and EXPIRATORY MUSCLES during exercise
- has both inspiratory and expiratory neurons (excites the inspiratory and expiratory muscles — through the PHRENIC NERVE
- ex. the diaphragm
- controls around 12 - 16 breaths per minute
18
Q
describe the BOTZINGER COMPLEX
A
- BOTZINGER COMPLEX:
- cluster of neurons—helps with GENERATION OF RHYTHM OF BREATHING
19
Q
describe the DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (DRG)
A
- responsible for GENERATION OF INSPIRATION
- network of neurons located near ROOT OF CRANIAL NERVE IX
20
Q
describe the PONTINE RESPIRATORY CENTERS
A
- helps INFLUENCE and MODIFY ACTIVITY of VRG
- helps SMOOTH OUT TRANSITION between INSPIRATION and EXPIRATION
- helps TRANSMIT IMPULSES TO VRG—helps MODIFY and FINE-TUNE BREATHING RHYTHMS (VOCALIZATION, SLEEP, EXERCISE)
21
Q
what are the factors that INFLEUNCE BREATHING RATE and DEPTH ?
A
- RESPIRATORY CENTERS:
- CHEMICAL FACTORS
- INFLUENCE OF HIGHER BRAIN CENTERS
- PULMONARY IRRITANT REFLEXES
- INFLATION REFLEX
22
Q
describe the CHEMICAL FACTORS
A
- CHEMICAL FACTORS:
- the MOST IMPORTANT for affecting depth and rate of INSPIRATION—the arterial pressure of carbon dioxide
- changes the levels of PCO2, PO2, and pH
- brain changes breathing depth in order to INCREASE OUR PH due to INCREASED ARTERIAL PCO2 (this has decreased our pH in our brain)—back to homeostatic balance
23
Q
where are the CHEMICAL and PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS FOUND?
A
- CHEMICAL CHEMORECEPTORS
- located throughout BRAIN STEM
- PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS
- aortic arch and carotid arteries
24
Q
what happens if we have a RISE OF BLOOD PCO2 LEVELS?
A
- known as HYPERCAPNIA—carbon dioxide begins to accumulate and become CARBONIC ACID once joined with water
- this begins to RELEASE HYDROGEN IONS—DROPPING OUR PH (INCREASED ACIDITY—known as ACIDEMIA)
- this STIMLATES CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS (which works hand in hand with RESPIRATORY REG. CENTERS)
- this INCREASES DEPTH and RATE OF BREATHING in order to get shit back to normal 🙉
- this STIMLATES CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS (which works hand in hand with RESPIRATORY REG. CENTERS)
25
Q
definition of HYPERVENTILATION
A
- increased DEPTH and RATE of BREATHING that exceeds the BODY’S NEED TO REMOVE CO2
- can be caused by anxiety attacks
- leads to HYPOCAPNIA
- can lead to CEREBRAL VASOCONSTRICTION + CEREBRAL ISCHEMIA
26
Q
describe the PULMONARY IRRITANT REFLEX
A
- eceptors within BRONCHIOLES—responds to IRRITANTS
- promotion of REFLEXIVE CONSTRICTION of AIR PASSAGES
- communicates through vagal nerve fibers
27
Q
describe the INFLATION REFLEX
A
-
HERING-BREUER REFLEX;
- stretch receptors in pleurae and airways—stimulated by LUNG INFLATION
28
Q
describe HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROLS
A
- acts through LIMBIC SYSTEM to change RATE and DEPTH of breathing
- ex. holding one’s breath causes pain
29
Q
defintiion of ACCLIMINATIZATION
A
- respiratory and hematopoietic adjustments to LONG-TERM MOVE to HIGH ALTITUDE
- more RESPONSIVE CHEMORECEPTORS
- any SUBSTANTIAL DECLINE in PO2—stimulation of PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS
- results;
- more VENTILATION PER MINUTE—begins to stabilize after a couple of days
30
Q
definition of ACUTE MOUNTAIN SICKNESS
A
- ACUTE MOUNTAIN SICKNESS:
- traveling of altitudes above 2400 meters (8000 feet)
- have LOWER ATM PRESSURE and OXYGEN
- show signs of HEADACHES, shortness of breath, dizziness—even LETHAL CEREBRAL + PULMONARY EDEMA
31
Q
describe CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE
A
- CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE:
- from CHRONIC BRONCHITIS and EMPHYSEMA
- the IRREVERSIBLE DECREASE in the ability to FORCE AIR OUT OF LUNGS
- FEATURES:
- seen in over 80% of SMOKING PATIENTS
- DYSPNEA
- coughing and pulmonary infections
- RESPIRATORY FAILURE—HYPOVENTILATION
32
Q
describe EMPHYSEMA
A
- the PERMANENT ENLARGEMENT OF ALVEOLI—the DESTRUCTION OF ALVEOLAR WALLS + DECREASED LUNG ELASTICITY
- can lead to HYPER INFLATION — FLATTENED DIAPHRAGM — REDUCED VENTILATION EFFICIENCY
- cause of “BARREL CHEST”
-
DAMAGED PULMONARY CAPILLARIES can lead to an ENLARGED RIGHT VENTRICLE
- cause of “TEARDROP HEART”
33
Q
describe CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
A
- CHRONIC BRONCHITIS:
-
INHALED IRRITANTS
- leading to CHRONIC EXCESSIVE MUCUS
- which begins to INFLAME and FIBROSE LOWER RESPIRATORY PASSAGEWAYS
- leading to CHRONIC EXCESSIVE MUCUS
- we now have OBSTRUCTED AIRWAYS
- and begins to IMPAIR LUNG VENTILATION and GAS EXCHANGE
- can cause frequent pulmonary infections
-
INHALED IRRITANTS
34
Q
describe ASTHMA
A
- known as REVERSIBLE COPD
- known for its COUGHING, DYSPNEA, WHEEZING, or CHEST TIGHTNESS
- often due to ACTIVE INFLAMMATION OF AIRWAYS
- often due to release of INTERLEUKINS, IgE, and INFLAMMATORY CELLS—acts as an IMMUNE RESPONSE
- often due to ACTIVE INFLAMMATION OF AIRWAYS
35
Q
describe TUBERCULOSIS
A
- TUBERCULOSIS (TB):
- caused by MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS
- SYMPTOMS:
- night sweats
- weight loss
- coughing
- TREATMENT:
- 12 month course of antibiotics
36
Q
what are the COMMON TYPES OF LUNG CANCER?
A
- the LEADING CAUSE of cancer deaths in USA
- over 90% results of SMOKING
- COMMON TYPES:
- ADENOCARCINOMA (40%)
- seen in PERIPHERAL LUNG AREAS—bronchial glands , alveolar cells
- SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA (20-40%)
- seen in BRONCHIAL EPITHELIUM
- SMALL CELL CARCINOMA (20%)
- seen in PRIMARY BRONCHI
- have LYMPHOCYTE-LIKE CELLS
- ADENOCARCINOMA (40%)
37
Q
definition of CYSTIC FIBROSIS
A
- the MOST COMMON LETHAL GENETIC DISEASE
- have ABNORMAL VISCOUS MUCUS CLOGS—can lead to BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
- can affect out LUNGS, PANCREATIC + REPRODUCTIVE DUCTS
- often due to an ABNORMAL GENE within CL MEMBRANE CHANNEL
38
Q
where was the DEVELOPMENT of the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM?
A
- MESODERM:
- connective tissue
- cartilage
- smooth muscle
- ENDODERM:
- epithelium and glands of trachea
- bronchi
- alveoli
