The Respiratory System 3 Flashcards
describe INTERNAL RESPIRATION
- have CAPILLARY GAS EXCHANGE within the BODY’S TISSUES
- our PARTIAL PRESSURES and DIFFUSION GRADIENTS—are now REVERSED compared to EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
describe OXYGEN TRANSPORT
OXYGEN + HEMOGLOBIN:
- each Hb molecule has FOUR POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS—all containing a IRON-CONTAINING HEME GROUP
- each HB can transport FOUR OXYGEN MOLECULES
- OXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbO2):
- HEMOGLOBIN-O2 COMBINATION
- REDUCED HEMOGLOBIN (DEOXYHEMOGLOBIN) (HHb):
- hemoglobin that has released OXYGEN
definition of the HEMOGLOBIN OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVE
- DISSOCIATION CURVE:
- the RATE OF LOADING and UNLOADING of OXYGEN is REGULATED to ENSURE ADEQUATE OXYGEN DELIVERY TO CELLS
- the specific curve is S-SHAPED; the HEMOGLOBIN SATURATION PLOTTED AGAINST Po2 is NOT LINEAR
what are the VARIABLE FACTORS for the DISSOCATION CURVE?
- VARIABLE FACTORS (shifts CURVE TO RIGHT);
- Po2
- TEMPERATURE (increase)
- BLOOD pH (decrease)
- Pco2 (increase)
- DPG (increase)
describe the INFLUENCE of PO2 on HEMOGLOBIN SATURATION
- IN ARTERIAL BLOOD:
- Po2 - 100 mm Hg
- contains around 20 ml OXYGEN per 100 ml blood (20% volume)
- HEMOGLOBIN is 98% SATURATED
- IN VENOUS BLOOD:
- Po2 - 40 mm Hg
- contains around 15% volume of oxygen
- HEMOGLOBIN is 75% SATURATED
- VENOUS RESERVE:
- oxygen remaining in venous blood
what happens if our HEMOGLOBIN is LESS SATURATED?
- known as the BOHR EFFECT; begins to ENHANCE OXYGEN UNLOADING to where it is needed the MOST
definition of HYPOXIA
the INADEQUATE OXYGEN DELIVERY to the TISSUES; also known as CYANOSIS
describe CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
*CO2 transported into BLOOD in THREE FORMS:
- DISSOLVED IN PLASMA as PCO2 (7-10%)
- BOUND TO GLOBIN (part of HEMOGLOBIN) (20%) – CARAMINOHEMOGLOBIN
- TRANSPORT OF BICARBONATE IONS HCO3 in PLASMA (70%)
describe the TRANSPORT and EXCHANGE of Co2 + O2 in SYSTEMIC CAPILLARIES
- begins after HCO3 is created—begins to DIFFUSE from RBCS into PLASMA
- process is balanced through the CHLORIDE SHIFT;
- CL moves into RBCS from PLASMA as HCO3 OUTRUSHES
describe the TRANSPORT and EXCHANGE of CO2 + O2 in PULMONARY CAPILLARIES
- opposite processes happen
- HCO3 MOVES IN RBCS while CL MOVES OUT of RBCS back into the PLASMA
- HCO3 binds with another HYDROGEN to create H2CO3
- split by CARBONIC ANHYDRASE into CO2 and WATER
- CO2 diffuses into the ALVEOLI
definition of HALDANE EFFECT
- OXYGENATION of BLOOD WITHIN THE LUNGS — begins to DISPLACE CARBON DIOXIDE from HB (INCREASES REMOVAL OF CO2)
- also reduces affinity for carbon dioxide in oxygenated blood
- known as the BOHR EFFECT (oxygen dissociates from Hb due to more co2)
describe the CARBONIC-ACID-BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
- helps blood RESIST CHANGES in PH
- HCO3 acts as the ALKALINE RESERVE for the system
how can one ADJUST the CARBONIC-ACID-BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
- CHANGES IN RESPIRATORY RATE + DEPTH can affect BLOOD ph:
- SLOW SHALLOW BREATHING = INCREASE in CO2 in BLOOD = DROP in PH
- RAPID DEEP BREATHING = DECREASE in CO2 in BLOOD = RISE in PH
- CHANGES IN VENTILATION:
- helps in adjusting pH due to issues with metabolism
- BREATHING—super important for body’s ACID-BASE BALANCE
what are RESPIRATORY RHYTHMS regulated by (3)?
- HIGHER BRAIN RECEPTORS
- CHEMORECEPTORS
- OTHER REFLEXES
describe the NEURONAL MECHANISMS
control of respiration involving the NEURONS in the RETICULAR FORMATION of the MEDULLA + PONS
- MEDULLA RESPIRATORY CENTER (within the MEDULLA OBLONGATA)
-
PRG (PONTINE RESPIRATORY GROUP) (within the PONS)
- important for inhalation and exhalation while ACTIVE—ex. during exercise, sleeping, or talking
describe the MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTERS
MRC:
- CLUSTERED NEURONS in the MEDULLA
describe the VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (VRG)
- responsible for MOTOR CONTROL of INSPIRATORY and EXPIRATORY MUSCLES during exercise
- has both inspiratory and expiratory neurons (excites the inspiratory and expiratory muscles — through the PHRENIC NERVE
- ex. the diaphragm
- controls around 12 - 16 breaths per minute
describe the BOTZINGER COMPLEX
- BOTZINGER COMPLEX:
- cluster of neurons—helps with GENERATION OF RHYTHM OF BREATHING
describe the DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (DRG)
- responsible for GENERATION OF INSPIRATION
- network of neurons located near ROOT OF CRANIAL NERVE IX
describe the PONTINE RESPIRATORY CENTERS
- helps INFLUENCE and MODIFY ACTIVITY of VRG
- helps SMOOTH OUT TRANSITION between INSPIRATION and EXPIRATION
- helps TRANSMIT IMPULSES TO VRG—helps MODIFY and FINE-TUNE BREATHING RHYTHMS (VOCALIZATION, SLEEP, EXERCISE)
what are the factors that INFLEUNCE BREATHING RATE and DEPTH ?
- RESPIRATORY CENTERS:
- CHEMICAL FACTORS
- INFLUENCE OF HIGHER BRAIN CENTERS
- PULMONARY IRRITANT REFLEXES
- INFLATION REFLEX
describe the CHEMICAL FACTORS
- CHEMICAL FACTORS:
- the MOST IMPORTANT for affecting depth and rate of INSPIRATION—the arterial pressure of carbon dioxide
- changes the levels of PCO2, PO2, and pH
- brain changes breathing depth in order to INCREASE OUR PH due to INCREASED ARTERIAL PCO2 (this has decreased our pH in our brain)—back to homeostatic balance
where are the CHEMICAL and PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS FOUND?
- CHEMICAL CHEMORECEPTORS
- located throughout BRAIN STEM
- PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS
- aortic arch and carotid arteries
what happens if we have a RISE OF BLOOD PCO2 LEVELS?
- known as HYPERCAPNIA—carbon dioxide begins to accumulate and become CARBONIC ACID once joined with water
- this begins to RELEASE HYDROGEN IONS—DROPPING OUR PH (INCREASED ACIDITY—known as ACIDEMIA)
- this STIMLATES CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS (which works hand in hand with RESPIRATORY REG. CENTERS)
- this INCREASES DEPTH and RATE OF BREATHING in order to get shit back to normal 🙉
- this STIMLATES CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS (which works hand in hand with RESPIRATORY REG. CENTERS)
definition of HYPERVENTILATION
- increased DEPTH and RATE of BREATHING that exceeds the BODY’S NEED TO REMOVE CO2
- can be caused by anxiety attacks
- leads to HYPOCAPNIA
- can lead to CEREBRAL VASOCONSTRICTION + CEREBRAL ISCHEMIA
describe the PULMONARY IRRITANT REFLEX
- eceptors within BRONCHIOLES—responds to IRRITANTS
- promotion of REFLEXIVE CONSTRICTION of AIR PASSAGES
- communicates through vagal nerve fibers
describe the INFLATION REFLEX
-
HERING-BREUER REFLEX;
- stretch receptors in pleurae and airways—stimulated by LUNG INFLATION
describe HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROLS
- acts through LIMBIC SYSTEM to change RATE and DEPTH of breathing
- ex. holding one’s breath causes pain
defintiion of ACCLIMINATIZATION
- respiratory and hematopoietic adjustments to LONG-TERM MOVE to HIGH ALTITUDE
- more RESPONSIVE CHEMORECEPTORS
- any SUBSTANTIAL DECLINE in PO2—stimulation of PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS
- results;
- more VENTILATION PER MINUTE—begins to stabilize after a couple of days
definition of ACUTE MOUNTAIN SICKNESS
- ACUTE MOUNTAIN SICKNESS:
- traveling of altitudes above 2400 meters (8000 feet)
- have LOWER ATM PRESSURE and OXYGEN
- show signs of HEADACHES, shortness of breath, dizziness—even LETHAL CEREBRAL + PULMONARY EDEMA
describe CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE
- CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE:
- from CHRONIC BRONCHITIS and EMPHYSEMA
- the IRREVERSIBLE DECREASE in the ability to FORCE AIR OUT OF LUNGS
- FEATURES:
- seen in over 80% of SMOKING PATIENTS
- DYSPNEA
- coughing and pulmonary infections
- RESPIRATORY FAILURE—HYPOVENTILATION
describe EMPHYSEMA
- the PERMANENT ENLARGEMENT OF ALVEOLI—the DESTRUCTION OF ALVEOLAR WALLS + DECREASED LUNG ELASTICITY
- can lead to HYPER INFLATION — FLATTENED DIAPHRAGM — REDUCED VENTILATION EFFICIENCY
- cause of “BARREL CHEST”
-
DAMAGED PULMONARY CAPILLARIES can lead to an ENLARGED RIGHT VENTRICLE
- cause of “TEARDROP HEART”
describe CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
- CHRONIC BRONCHITIS:
-
INHALED IRRITANTS
- leading to CHRONIC EXCESSIVE MUCUS
- which begins to INFLAME and FIBROSE LOWER RESPIRATORY PASSAGEWAYS
- leading to CHRONIC EXCESSIVE MUCUS
- we now have OBSTRUCTED AIRWAYS
- and begins to IMPAIR LUNG VENTILATION and GAS EXCHANGE
- can cause frequent pulmonary infections
-
INHALED IRRITANTS
describe ASTHMA
- known as REVERSIBLE COPD
- known for its COUGHING, DYSPNEA, WHEEZING, or CHEST TIGHTNESS
- often due to ACTIVE INFLAMMATION OF AIRWAYS
- often due to release of INTERLEUKINS, IgE, and INFLAMMATORY CELLS—acts as an IMMUNE RESPONSE
- often due to ACTIVE INFLAMMATION OF AIRWAYS
describe TUBERCULOSIS
- TUBERCULOSIS (TB):
- caused by MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS
- SYMPTOMS:
- night sweats
- weight loss
- coughing
- TREATMENT:
- 12 month course of antibiotics
what are the COMMON TYPES OF LUNG CANCER?
- the LEADING CAUSE of cancer deaths in USA
- over 90% results of SMOKING
- COMMON TYPES:
- ADENOCARCINOMA (40%)
- seen in PERIPHERAL LUNG AREAS—bronchial glands , alveolar cells
- SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA (20-40%)
- seen in BRONCHIAL EPITHELIUM
- SMALL CELL CARCINOMA (20%)
- seen in PRIMARY BRONCHI
- have LYMPHOCYTE-LIKE CELLS
- ADENOCARCINOMA (40%)
definition of CYSTIC FIBROSIS
- the MOST COMMON LETHAL GENETIC DISEASE
- have ABNORMAL VISCOUS MUCUS CLOGS—can lead to BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
- can affect out LUNGS, PANCREATIC + REPRODUCTIVE DUCTS
- often due to an ABNORMAL GENE within CL MEMBRANE CHANNEL
where was the DEVELOPMENT of the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM?
- MESODERM:
- connective tissue
- cartilage
- smooth muscle
- ENDODERM:
- epithelium and glands of trachea
- bronchi
- alveoli