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BIO 176 LAB + LEC > Endocrine Organs Part 2 > Flashcards

Endocrine Organs Part 2 Flashcards

1
Q

how is the HYPOTHALAMUS and PITUITARY GLAND CONNECTED?

where is the PITUITARY GLAND found/basic anatomy?

A

connected through a stalk known as the “INFUNDIBULUM”

HYPOTHALAMUS
secretion of RELEASING & INHIBITING HORMONES onto the ANTERIOR PITUITARY
- this regulates HORMONE SECRETION

PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS)
- has TWO MAJOR LOBES
- lies within the SELLA TURCICA of the SPHENOID BONE

POSTERIOR PITUITARY (NEUROHYPOPHYSIS)
- composed of NEURAL TISSUE
- secretes TWO HORMONES

ANTERIOR PITUITARY (ADENOHYPOPHYSIS)
- composed of GLANDULAR TISSUE
- secretes SEVEN HORMONES

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2
Q

how does the HYPOTHALAMUS release HORMONES from the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND?

A

ANTERIOR LOBE (ADENOHYPOPHYSIS)
*made up of GRANDULAR TISSUE

use of the PITUITARY PORTAL SYSTEM or HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM

  • secretion of inhibitory and releasing hormones–while it is then secreted into the blood and reach its target cells
  • portal system is made up of TWO CAPILLARY PLEXUSES that are connected by PORTAL VEINS
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3
Q

how does the HYPOTHALAMUS release HORMONES from the POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND?

A

POSTERIOR LOBE (NEUROHYPOPHYSIS)
**made up of NEURAL TISSUE

use of the HYPOTHALAMIC HYPOPHEASEAL TRACT + system of NEUROSECRETORY CELLS

  • secretion of OXYTOCIN (UTERUS) + ADH (KIDNEYS)
  • hormones travel down AXONS OF HYPOTHALAMIC NEURONS–causation of HORMONAL RELEASE from AXON TERMINALS
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4
Q

which HYPOTHALAMIC NEURONS produce OXYTOCIN & ADH?

A

OXYTOCIN
- produced by PARAVENTRICULAR NEURONS

ADH
- produced by SUPRAOPTIC NEURONS

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5
Q

what are the FUNCTIONS of OXYTOCIN and ADH?

A

both are composed of NINE AMINO ACIDS
(just differ in two)

OXYTOCIN
UTERUS:
stimulation of UTERINE CONTRACTIONS
BREAST
stimulation of MILK EJECTION/PRODUCTION

ADH (VASOPRESSIN)
KIDNEYS
stimulation of KIDNEY TUBULE CELLS to REABSORB WATER
- specific OSMORECEPTORS activate NEUROSECRETORY CELLS to RELEASE ADH

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6
Q

what STIMULATES the RELEASE OF ADH + what are its TARGET TISSUES?

A

STIMULATIONS:
- HIGH BLOOD OSMOTIC PRESSURE
INHIBITIONS:
- LOW BLOOD OSMOTIC PRESSURE

specific OSMORECEPTORS activate NEUROSECRETORY CELLS to RELEASE/INHIBIT ADH

TARGET TISSUES
KIDNEYS:
- RETAINING OF WATER– decreases urine
SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS:
- RETAINING OF WATER–decreases water loss
ARTERIOLES:
- CONSTRICT–increases BLOOD PRESSURE

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7
Q

what is DIABETES INSPIDIUS?

A

HYPOSECRETION OF ADH:

the LACK OF ADH due to DAMAGE within the **HYPOTHALAMUS or POSTERIOR PITUITARY
- can be NEPHROGENIC (INSENSITIVITY/RESISTANCE TO ADH) or CENTRAL (FAILURE TO MAKE)

must stay WELL HYDRATED

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8
Q

what is the SYNDROME OF INAPPROPRIATE ADH SECRETION (SIADH)?

A

HYPERSECRETION OF ADH

the RETENTION OF FLUID–creation of increased HEADACHES + DISORIENTATION
- the EXCESSIVE FREE WATER–DILUTIONAL HYPONATERUMIA
must have FLUID RESTRICTION–blood sodium level monitoring

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9
Q

what are the ANTERIOR PITUTIARY HORMONES’ specific CLASSIFICATIONS?

A

PEPTIDE HORMONES
GROWTH HORMONE–only one that DOES NOT use cAMP SECOND MESSENGER SYS
ONLY TWO are NOT TROPIC HORMONES

TROPIC (TROPINS) HORMONES:
- REGULATES SECRETION OF OTHER HORMONES

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10
Q

what are the ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES?

what are the HYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING HORMONES (for STIMULATION OF SECRETION)?

what are the HYPOTHALAMIC INHIBITING HORMONES (for SUPRESSION of SECRETION)?

A
  1. HUMAN GROTH HORMONE (hGH) aka SOMATOTROPIN
    - has GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING HORMONE (GHRH) aka SOMATOCRININ
    - has GROWTH HORMONE INHIBITING HORMONE (GHIH)
  2. THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH) aka THYROTROPIN
    - has THYROTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (TRH)
    - has GROWTH HORMONE INHIBITING HORMONE (GHIH)
  3. FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
    - has GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GnRH)
  4. LUTENIZING HORMONE (LH)
    - has GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GnRH)
  5. PROLACTIN (PRL)
    - has PROLACTIN-RELEASING HORMONE (PRH)
    - has PROLACTIN-INHIBITING HORMONE (PIH) aka DOPAMINE
  6. ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH) aka CORTICOTROPIN
    - has CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (CRH)
  7. MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)
    - has CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (CRH)
    - has DOPAMINE (inhibiting)
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11
Q

what are the FUNCTIONS of GROWTH HORMONE (GH)?

A

GROWTH HORMONE/SOMATOTROPIN:
- produced by SOMATROTROPIC CELLS

FUNCTIONS
- has DIRECT ACTIONS on METABOLISM
- has INDIRECT ACTIONS on GROWTH PROMOTING FACTORS
- helps INCREASE SKELETAL AND EXTRASKELETAL FORMATIONS
(such as CARTILAGE FORMATION and SKELETAL GROWTH)
- helps INCREASE FAT AND CARB METABOLISM)
(such as FAT BREAKDOWN and BLOOD GLUCOSE/ANTI-INSULIN EFFECTS)

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12
Q

what happens if we have HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES of the GROWTH HORMONE?

A

HYPERSECRETION OF GH:
- children: GIGANTISM
- adults: ACROMEGALY

HYPOSECRETION OF GH
- children: PITUITARY DWARFISM

example: even HYPOGLYCEMIA and HYPERGLYCEMIA play a role
- hGH SPEEDS UP BREAKDOWN OF GLYCOGEN INTO GLUCOSE

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13
Q

what is the REGULATION of THYROID HORMONE SECRETION? what is its PATHWAY?

A

THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE
- also known as THYROTROPIN
- produced by THYROTROPIC CELLS
- functions as the DEVELOPMENT and SECRETORY ACTIVITY of the THYROID

PATHWAY
- hypothalamus (TRH)
- anterior pituitary (TSH)
- thyroid gland (thyroid hormones)
- target cells

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14
Q

what is the REGULATION of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH)?

A
  • also known as CORTICOTROPIN
  • produced and secreted by CORTICOTROPIC CELLS
    (precursor–opiomelanocortin)

REGULATION:
- triggered by CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (CRH)
- ACTH stimulates the ADRENAL CORTEX to RELEASE CORTICOSTEROIDS

FUNCTION:
- release of our STRESS RESPONSE–CORTISOL

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15
Q

what is the REGULATION of the GONADOTROPINS (FSH + LH)?

A

FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) + LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)
- secreted by GONADOTROPIC CELLS of the anterior pituitary
- stimulated by GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GnRH)

FUNCTIONS:
- FSH:
stimulates PRODUCTION OF GAMETES–EGG AND SPERM
- LH
stimulates and PROMOTION OF GONADAL HORMONES

GONADAL HORMONES:
- FEMALES
aids in maturation of FOLLICLES of the EGG–OVULATION–release of ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE
- MALES
aids in the stimulation of the PRODUCTION of TESTOSTERONE

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16
Q

what is the REGULATION of PROLACTIN (PRL)?

A
  • secreted by PROLACTIN CELLS of the anterior pituitary

REGULATION:
- controlled by PIH also known as DOPAMINE
- prevents release UNTIL NEEDED

FUNCTION:
stimulation of MILK PRODUCTION IN FEMALES

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17
Q

what are some HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES of PROLACTIN?

A

HYPOSECRETION OF PRL
- much more COMMON–no serious issue, except if wanting to nurse baby

HYPERSECRETION of PRL
- HYPERPROLACTINEMIA
seen in ANTERIOR PITUITARY TUMORS
- shows signs of INAPPROPRIATE LACTATION and INFERTILITY IN FEMALES

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18
Q

describe the THYROID GLAND

A

THYROID GLAND:
- a butterfly-shaped gland located INFERIOR to the LAYRNX and is ANTERIOR to the TRACHEA
- our body’s MAIN METABOLIC HORMONE–controlling of ANABOLIC & CATABOLIC REACTIONS

ANATOMY:

  • has RIGHT AND LEFT LATERAL LOBES connected by an ISTHMUS
  • can sometimes have a **PYRAMIDAL LOBE (projection from ISTHMUS)
  • has COLLOID FILLED CELLS–contains THYROGLOBULIN + IODINE (precursors)
  • has PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS–which secrete CALCITONIN (regulation of blood calcium levels)
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19
Q

what are the THYROID HORMONES?

A

THYROXINE (T4) and TRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3)

produced from FOLLICULAR CELLS
stimulated by TSH

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20
Q

what are the EFFECTS OF the THYROID HOROME?

A
  • maintains BLOOD PRESSURE
  • INCREASE of BASAL METABOLIC RATE
  • creation of HEAT PRODUCTION–CALORGENIC EFFECT
  • regulation of TISSUE GROWTH + DEVELOPMENT
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21
Q

what are some HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES of TH?

A

HYPOSECRETION (adults) of TH
- MYXEDEMA–GOITER–due to the lack of IODINE
- seen with a LOW METABOLIC RATE, EDEMA, ETC..

HYPOSECRETION (infants) of TH
- CRETINISM–due to the lack of THYROXINE from birth or lack of the thyroid gland
- use of the HEEL-STICK method to CHECK

HYPERSECRETION of TH
- GRAVE’S DISEASE
specific type of autoimmune disease–body begins to make ABNORMAL ANTIBODIES against THYROID FOLLICULAR CELLS
- antibodies MIMICK TSH–more TH made
- symptoms of elevated metabolism, weight loss, and EXOPHTHALMOS–protruding eyes

(TREATMENT)
removal of THYROID or RADIOACTIVE IODINE

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22
Q

how is the THYROID HORMONE SYNTHESIZED?

A

TRANSPORTATION
- T3 and T4 moved by THYROXINE-BINDING GLOBULINS (TBGS)

23
Q

describe CALCITONIN

A

produced by the PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS
- a specific ANTAGONIST to the PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)

FUNCTION:
- INHIBITS OSTEOCLAST ACTIVITY and release of Ca from bone matrix
- STIMULATION of Ca UPTAKE + INCORP. into BONE MATRIX

24
Q

describe the PARATHYROID GLANDS

A

LOCATION:
- seen in the POSTERIOR ASPECT of the THYROID
- small FOUR to EIGHT YELLOW-BROWN GLANDS

CELLS:
- has OXYPHIL CELLS
- has PARATHYROID CELLS–secretion of the PARATHYROID HORMONE

FUNCTION:
- the MOST IMPORTANT HORMONE for CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
- secreted in response to LOW BLOOD CALCIUM LEVELS (HYPOCALCEMIA
- INHIBITED by RISING LEVELS of CALCIUM

25
what are the TWO TYPES of CELLS within the PARATHYROID GLANDS?
- **CHIEF CELLS or PRINICPAL CELLS** --makes PTH - **OXYPHIL CELLS**--function not clear; makes EXCESS PTH in PARATHYROID CANCER
26
how does the PARATHYROID and THYROID GLAND WORK TOGETHER?
**HIGH LEVELS OF CALCIUM** - stimulation of **THYROID GLAND** to release **CALCITONIN--calcium goes DOWN (parafollicular cells)** **LOW LEVELS OF CALCIUM*** - stimulation of **PARATHYROID GLAND** to release **PARATHYROID HORMONE--calcium goes UP (chief cells)**
27
describe the ANATOMY of the ADRENAL GLANDS
**ADRENAL GLANDS**: or also known as **SUPRARENAL GLANDS**--located on **TOP OF EACH KIDNEY** made up of the **ADRENAL CORTEX** and the **ADRENAL MEDULLA** **ADRENAL CORTEX** - made up of **THREE LAYERS OF GLANDULAR TISSUE** **ADRENAL MEDULLA** - made up of **NERVOUS TISSUE** that is part of the SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
28
what are the HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES of PTH?
**HYPERPARATHYROIDISM** - due to **TUMOR** - an **ELEVATION of CALCIUM**--begins to depress the nervous system and the formation of **KIDNEY STONES** - bones also begin to **SOFTEN and DEFORM** **HYPOPARATHYROIDISM** - due to **GLAND TRAUMA or DIETARY DEFICIENCY** - results in **TETANY, RESPIRATORY PARALYSIS, and DEATH**
29
describe each LAYER of the ADRENAL CORTEX and the ADRENAL MEDULLA
**ADRENAL CORTEX** **ZONA GLOMERULOSA** - secretion of the **MINERALOCORTICOIDS** such as **ALDOSTERONE** **ZONA FASCICULATA** - secretion of the **GLUCOCORTICOIDS** such as **CORTISOL** **ZONA RETICULARIS** - secretion of the **ANDROGENS aka GONADOCORTICOIDS** **ADRENAL MEDULLA** - has the **CHROMFFAIN CELLS**--secretion of **EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE**
30
what is the function of MINERALCORTICOIDS? what is the function of ALDOSTERONE?
**MINERALCORTICOIDS** - important in function for **REGULATING ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATIONS (NA and K) within the ECF** (Sodium is important since it AFFECTS ECF VOLUME)--very important regulator (potassium important for RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL in cells) **ALDOSTERONE:** - the **MOST POTENT MINERALOCORTICOID** - important in **STIMULATION OF Na REABSORPTION within the KIDNEYS** - this **INCREASES BLOOD VOLUME and BP** - **DECREASES POTASSIUM LEVELS**
31
describe the mechanism control of ALDOSTERONE RELEASE
**RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE MECHANISM:** 1. **decreased blood pressure** - stimulation of special cells within our kidneys 2. special cells release **RENIN** into the blood 3. RENIN cleaves off plasma protein - **ANGIOTENSIN - triggers enzyme cascade** - conversion to **ANGIOTENSIN II** **ANGIOTENSIN II:** a **POTENT STIMULATOR of ALDOSTERONE RELEASE** (through the VASOCONTRICTION of ARTERIOLES)
32
what are the HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES of ALDOSTERONE?
**ALDOSTERONE** - **HYPERSECRETION--due to ADRENAL TUMORS** - have an **EXCESSIVE AMOUNT OF SODIUM**-- leads to HYPERTENSION and EDEMAS - have an **EXCRETION of K**--leads to ABNORMAL FUNCTION OF NEURONS and MUSCLE
33
what is the function of GLUCOCORTICOIDS? what is the function of CORTISOL?
**GLUCOCORTICOID FUNCTION:** - aids in **PROTEIN BREAKDOWN** - **GLUCOSE FORMATION - **STRESS RESISTANCE** - **INFLAMMATION** - **IMMUNE RESPONSE** **CORTISOL (HYDROCORTISONE)** - the **MOST PRODUCED** - causes **INCREASE** within **BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS, FATTY ACIDS AND AMINO ACIDS**--supresses the secretion of **CRH and ACTH** - important for **GLUCONEOGENESIS** - regulated by **NEGATIVE FEEDBACK**
34
what happens if we have EXCESSIVE LEVELS of GLUCOCORTICOIDS?
- continued **DISRUPTION OF NORMAL CARDIOVAS., NEURAL and GI FUNCTIONS** - **DEPRESSED IMMUNE SYSTEM** - **INHIBITION OF INFLAMMATION** - **DEPRESSES CARTILAGE and BONE FORMATION**
35
what are the HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES of GLUCOCORTICOIDS?
**HYPERSECRETION** - **CUSHING'S DISEASE** continued **DISRUPTION OF NORMAL CARDIOVAS., NEURAL and GI FUNCTIONS** - **DEPRESSED IMMUNE SYSTEM** - **INHIBITION OF INFLAMMATION** - **DEPRESSES CARTILAGE and BONE FORMATION** - can have TWO TYPES: either **EXOGENOUS** (too much glucocorticoid) and **ENDOGENOUS** (tumor) - SIGNS: - *moon face - hyperglycemia - thin skin* **HYPOSECRETION** - **ADDISON's DISEASE** - a **DECREASE in glucocorticoids etc...** - **DECREASE in GLUCOSE and SODIUM LEVELS** SIGNS: - *bronzed appearance - severe dehydration - weight loss*
36
what is the function of GONADOCORTICOIDS? what is the function of DHEA?
**DEHYDROEPIANDROSTERONE (DHEA):** - the **MAJOR ANDROGEN** secreted by the ADRENAL CORTEX **MALES:** - use of the hormone **TESTOSTERONE**--no virtual effect on DHEA **FEMALES:** - has a **MAJOR ROLE of DHEA**--promotion of **LIBIDO** and conversion into **ESTROGENS**
37
what HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES effects GONADOCORTICOIDS?
**ADRENOGENITAL SYNDROME (MASCULINIZATION)**: - seen in **FEMALES and PREPUBERTAL MALES** **FEMALES** - more breads and MASCULINE PATTERN of BODY - CLITORIS resembles small penis **BOYS** - greater MATURATION of REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS - early set on SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS
38
what is the function of the ADRENAL MEDULLA?
**MEDULLARY CHROMAFFIN CELLS** - the synthesis of **EPINEPHRINE (80%)** and **NOREPINEPHRINE (20%)** **EPINEPHRINE:** - important for **METABOLIC ACTIVITIES--such as BRONCHIAL DILATION, BLOOD FLOW** **NOREPINEPHRINE** - important for **PERIPHERAL VASOCONSTRICTION**--increases BP **both secrete in response to STRESS** - this INCREASES our **HEART RATE** and **BLOOD GLUCOSE** - greater **VASOCONSTRICTION**--blood is diverted to BRAIN, HEART and SKELETAL MUSCLES
39
what are the HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF the ADRENAL MEDULLA?
**HYPERSECRETION** - HYPERGLYCEMIA - HYPERTENSION - RAPID HR and PALPATIONS - can be due to **PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA--TUMOR OF MEDULLARY CHROMAFFIN CELLS** **HYPOSECRETION** - dont worry about it
40
describe the PINEAL GLAND
**PINEAL GLAND** - small gland that hangs from the **ROOF OF the THIRD VENTRICLE** has **PINEALOCYTES**--these secrete **MELATONIN**--derived from SEROTONIN
41
the function of MELATONIN?
- timing of **SEXUAL MATURATION + PUBERTY** - **DAY/NIGHT CYCLES** - important for PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES that SHOW **RHYTHMIC VARIATIONS** (body temp, sleep, appetite)
42
what are the PANCREATIC ISLETS?
specific **TRIANGULAR GLAND** that is found PARTIALLY BEHIND the STOMACH - contains **ENDOCRINE CELLS** - has **ACINAR CELLS, ALPHA, AND BETA CELLS** **ACINAR CELLS** (EXOCRINE) - produces **ENZYME RICH JUICE for DIGESTION** **ALPHA CELLS** - produces **GLUCAGON (hyperglycemic)** **BETA CELLS** - produces **INSULIN (hypoglycemic)** also has **SOMATOSTAIN (inhibits secretion)** and **PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE (stimulates secretion)** **REMEMBER PANCREAS IS BOTH ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE**
43
how does INSULIN and GLUCAGON WORK TOGETHER?
**GLUCAGON:** - extreme **POTENT HYPERGLYCEMIC AGENT** - triggered by **LOW BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS, RISING AMINO ACID LVLS, SNS** - targets the **LIVER**--stimulation of GLYCOGEN BREAKDOWN **INSULIN** - secreted when **BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS ARE HIGH** - **STIMULATES GLYCOGEN FORMATION**
44
how does GLUCAGON increase blood levels?
affects the processes of **GLYCOGENOLYSIS and GLUCONEOGENESIS** **GLYCOGENOLYSIS:** - the breakdown of glycogen to glucose **GLUCONEOGENESIS:** - the synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates - this in turn makes the RELEASE OF GLUCOSE into the BLOOD
45
what is DIABETES MELLITUS?
have TWO TYPES: **TYPE ONE** - due to **HYPOSECRETION** **TYPE TWO** - due to **HYPOACTIVITY** can have dangerous effects due to **BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS STAYING HIGH** - can cause NAUSEA and even activate **FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSES** - can have **GLYCOSURIA**--glucose spilled into urine - can have **LIPIDEMIA and cause KETOACIDOSIS** (also leading to HYPERNEA) and even death
46
what is HYPERINSULINISM?
**EXCESSIVE INSULIN secretion** - can cause HYPOGLYCEMIA--low blood glucose - anxiety, nervousness, disorientation etc..
47
describe the OVARIES and TESTES
**GONADS (OVARIES and TESTES)** - produces the **GAMETES** (OOCYTES AND SPERM) **OVARIES** - creation of **TWO ESTROGENS; ESTRADIOL and ESTRONE** - also **PROGESTERONE, RELAXIN, AND INHIBIN** **TESTES** - creation of **TESTOSTERONE**
48
what does PLACENTA SECRETE?
estrogens, progesterone, and **HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN (hCG)** -- allows for the secretion within **FIRST TRIMESTER of PREGNANCY** - thickens uterus lining
49
what 3 hormones are secreted by ADIPOSE TISSUE?
- **LEPTIN:** - appetite control; stimulation of increased energy expenditure - **RESISTIN:** - insulin antagonist - **ADIPONECTIN:** - enhances sensitivity to insulin
50
what hormones are secreted by the KIDNEYS?
- **ERYTHROPOIETIN:** - signals production of red blood cells - **RENIN:** - initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism
51
function of ATRIAL NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE?
**decreases blood Na concentration**—blood volume and blood pressure drop
52
what hormone is secreted by the SKELETON (OSTEOBLASTS)?
- **OSTEOCALCIN:** - controls pancreas to SECRETE MORE INSULIN—restriction of fat storage and improves glucose handling - activated by **INSULIN**
53
what hormone is secreted by the SKIN?
- **CHOLECALCIFEROL:** - precursor of vitamin D - **CALCITRIOL:** - **active form** of vitamin D - helps absorb calcium from the intestines
54
what hormones are secreted by the THYMUS?
- **THYMUS:** - large in infants and children; shrinks as we age - has **THYMULIN, THYMOPOIETINS, & THYMOSINS** - develops T lymphocytes in immune response - acts as PARACRINE—has hormones that effect on itself

BIO 176 LAB + LEC (20 decks)

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