Superpowers - EQ1 - 7.1 & 7.2 Flashcards
Define superpower
- a country with the capacity to project dominating power & influence anywhere in the world, sometimes in more than one region of the globe at a time
Define emerging superpower
- countries with a large role in one of more superpower characteristics, and with growing influence
- they may not yet have dominance in all key areas of superpower status
- e.g. China, Brazil, India, Russia
Define regional power
- Regional powers can project dominating power and influence over other countries within the continent or region,
- but are less powerful outside that region
- e.g. Nigeria
Define a hyperpower
- an unchallenged superpower that is dominant in all aspects of power
- e.g USA (1990-2010) & Britain (1850-1910)
What are the 6 superpower characteristics
- economic
- political
- military
- cultural
- demographic
- access to resources
Explain the economic characteristic for defining a country’s power
- Large GDP, high % of international trade, currency used as reserve currency
- A large GDP creates influence as a potential market and as the home of TNCs which create FDI
- Underpins the other 5 characteristics
- The USA has the world’s largest total GDP - $18.5 trillion
Explain the political characteristic for defining a country’s power
- the ability to influence the policies of other countries through the dominance of negotiations (Both bilaterally and through international organisations)
- many multilateral agreements
- permanent seat on UN security council
Explain the military characteristic for defining a country’s power
- High expenditure, largest amount of hardware personnell, inc nuclear weapons
- could command global military control
- unparalleled intelligence networks
- exporters of military technology
- Global influence through blue water navy and drone, missile and satellite technology
- Strong demographic & economic power
Explain the cultural characteristic for defining a country’s power
- The ability to influence the beliefs, values, ideology and way of life in other countries.
Achieved through: - the dominance of media (films, radio, television, internet, education)
- TNCs or migrants introducing cultural products (food, clothing, music, religion)
- imposition of viewpoint in international agreements
- Indicators: global spread of music, fashion, food, language, religion
Explain the demographic characteristic for defining a country’s power
- significant percentage of global population
- a large diaspora and workers at TNCs assists economic power through a large market and economies of scale (so more profit).
- means army can be larger
Explain the resources characteristic for defining a country’s power
- able to export and control the supply of valuable commodities, for example oil, or be able to secure the resources it needs
- Provides inputs for economic growth
- May be internally located, or accessed through reliable source countries through transport pathways.
- Essential for military power
Define hard power
- power through force or coercion and is likely to involve military power or economic sanctions
- These mechanisms of maintaining power & extending global influence sit on the spectrum from “….’ to ‘….’ power, and vary in their effectiveness
- Harvard’s Nye argued that true superpowers need to Combine both a ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ power approach to become a ‘….’ power
- hard
- soft
- smart
Define soft power
- exerting influence through favour and persuasion, and is therefore likely to be based on cultural power
What are the characteristics of soft power
- Political Values - its democracy or its overseas image.
- Culture
- Foreign Policy
What are the characteristics of hard power
- Blue-Water Navy - Military force which operate across the deep waters of open oceans.
- Green-Water Navy - Military force which operates on coastal waters, ports and harbour
- Military Personnel - The amount of people who are members of the state’s armed forces
- Defence Spending - Money spent by the govt. for weapons, equipment, and soldiers
Exemplify the spetrum of hard to soft power
- Hard power- Military force or its threat
- Economic sanctions and diplomatic actions
- Coercive policy e.g. tied aid or trade agreements
- Political influence, moral authority, economic influence
- Soft power - Cultural attractiveness
What is smart power
- Joseph Nye claimed that the world’s most powerful and influential countries use ‘smart power’ - a combination of hard and soft power
Give examples of hard power
- Military presence and force
- Military action, or the threat of it
- Britain’s military actions taken in Iraq and Afghanistan
- Military alliances such as NATO
- Diplomatic threats to use force if negotiation fails
Give examples of soft power
- Using the media to promote a particular image and message
- The global dominance of the USA through TNCs such as Coca Cola and McDonald’s, as well as media, TV, films etc.
- Culture and ideology
- Exporting culture in the form of film and
- TV, or globally recognised brands
- Exerting influence through favour and persuasion
Give examples of economic power
- Favouring certain trade partners
- Using aid to influence policy
- Economic sanctions such as those taken against Iran to try to prevent it from developing its military nuclear capability
- Trade blocs and alliances
- Aid and trade
- Giving allies economic and technical help
Why could hard power be argued more or less effective
- Hard power (threats of force or military action) can get results,
- but it is expensive and risky
- Others may view military action as unnecessary or illegal,
- so the aggressor may lose allies and moral authority (e.g. Russia’s 2014 invasion of the Crimea)
Why could soft power be argued more or less effective
- Soft power relies on a country having respected culture, values and politics, which may be enough to persuade some countries but not others
- Applied well it is low cost and, because it is about creating alliances and friendly relations, may spread to other countries
Who produced the geo-strategic location, ‘Heartland’ theory
A British Geographer named Mackinder
Where is the Heartland area located
- The Heartland is an area of central Asia, bordered by the Himalayas, the Russian steppes and the Arctic.
- This is very hard to invade, because of physical barriers in the way.
- It is a power-base, which allows control of the world island.
What is Mackinder’s geo-strategic theory
- the centre of the Eurasian land mass as a key geo-strategic location:
- if one nation controlled this heartland, it would become globally dominant as it would control 50% of the world’s resources
- Mackinder’s view was that other countries should work together to balance this ‘Heartland’ power and make sure it did not become too dominant
What are the 3 determinents of power in the Heartland’s region
- whoever ruled the most strategic parts of Europe would command the heartland
- whoever ruled the heartland would command the world island e.g Europe & Russia
- whoever controlled the island ruled the world
What 2 factors hinder Russia’s power according to this theory
- 14 bordering countries
- much of its coast is frozen in winter, so it has few year round ports
What role does sea power play in global power
- Mackinder thought thr ‘Heartland’ could shift geographically, especially as a result of seapower
- He also believed Britain’s nineteenth century industrialisation had shifted the centre of power westward
- Using seapower he believed the UK could dominate everywhere from Western Europe to the pacific coast as well as the Eurasian land mass & potentially the world
What is the influence of the Heartland Theory
- It persuades the USA, UK, and other European countries that Russia needed to be ‘contained’, i.e. prevented from spreading outward by taking over new areas close by.
- It reinforced the idea that control of physical resources (land, mineral wealth) was important.
- The Trumman Doctrine committed the USA to support those fighting Communism around the world - led to US & allies entering conflicts in Korea & Vietnam
In the 21st century, how does the Heartland Theory seem antiquated
- Modern military technology (e.g strike aircraft) can hit deep inside another country’s territory - size is no longer a protection
- Physical resources are traded internationally; there is much less need to have them domestically
- War and conflict are generally seen as abnormal, whereas in the past they were accepted ways of gaining power
Why are geo-strategic policies less important as a result of globalisation
- superpower countries may be more at threat from cyber-warfare than from invasion by other nations
- some TNCs have become more powerful than most nations through their control of global trade
- superpowers may get involved with proxy conflicts, supporting opposite sides of conflicts in world regions such as the Middle East
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How has the global power shifted in the twenty-first century
- The centre is shifted eastwards towards the country/region with the largest GDP, following the growing importance of China
Which type of power has become the most common way of gaining influence
- Soft power has become more common as a way of gaining influence and maintaining power, by creating economic and political alliances
What did the development of empires rely on
- powerful navies to transport soldiers and equipment to areas of potential conquest, and then protect sea-routes and coastlines from enemies
- large and advanced armed forces to conquer territory and then control it
- businesses, often govt owned, to exploit resources in the conquered territories by mining (gold, tin) and plantation farming (rubber, tea, coffee)
- a fleet of merchant ships, protected by a navy, to transport goods back to the home country
- people from the home country to act as the govt and civil service to run the colonies
- The period from ………… was an imperial era (denominated by empires)
- European powers (Spain, Portugal, Britain, France and Germany) conquered land in the ………………….. and built empires that directly controlled territories
- 1500 to 1950
- Americas, Africa and Asia
What did the development of empires rely on
- powerful navies to transport soldiers and equipment to areas of potential conquest, and then protect sea-routes and coastlines from enemies
- large and advanced armed forces to conquer territory and then control it
- businesses to exploit resources in the conquered territories
- a fleet of merchant ships, protected by a navy, to transport goods home
- people from the home country to act as the govt and civil service to run the colonies
What statistics show that Britain had the largest Empire
- At its peak in 1920, the British Empire extended over to approximately 25% of the world’s land area & ruled 20% of the population
What were the 3 phases of the British Empire
- Mercantilist - 16C - 18C
- Imperial - 1815-1914
- Post-Colonial - 1945+
Describe how the Mercantilist phase facilitated the growth of the British Empire
- Mercantilism is an economic theory practice used by Britain
- involving a fiscal policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade
- with the purpose of expanding state power at the expense of rival national powers.
- e.g. building overseas colonies
How did Mercantilism contribute to Britain’s already prosperous global image & strength
- contributed to superpower status, beyond being the world’s first industrial country
- contributed to wealth by accessing resources
Describe how the Imperial phase facilitated the growth of the British Empire
- unique expansion of formal empire: rather than securing authority and influence through cultural, commercial and diplomatic means,
- there was increasing resort to the direct rule of colonies
- reinforcing Britain’s hard power authority
Describe how the Post-colonial phase faciliated the fall of the British Empire
- After World War II, with England’s economy recovering and mounting pressure for independence from colonized territories, British colonial rule throughout the world weakened
- The British Empire was transformed into the Commonwealth in which numerous states gained independence, but voluntarily associated with Great Britain
Describe how modernism justified the British Empire
- The world can be improved by human intervention and achievement.
- Europe could improve world by colonising
- Europeans modern, civilised and superior compared to natives of foreign lands British were naturally intelligent
- British were natural rulers
- Britain could and should rule the world
Describe how Evangelical Christianity justify the British Empire
- evangelism - they spread the Christian word through churches and schools
- This led to:
- Belief that natives were racially inferior
- Belief that colonialism was a divine calling
- Social Darwinism - Strong should survive over the weak
Define colonialism
- The direct control exerted over territories conquered by mainly European powers in the period 1600-1900
- They were ruled by force, with almost no power or influence being given to the original population
Define imperialism
- A relationship of political, economic or cultural control between geographical areas
Define colonisation
- The physical settling of people from a colonial power within their colony
What were the successes of British colonial power
- Effective Railway lines were built throughout the country
- English language spread throughout the Empire —> Commonwealth countries to become outsourcing services
- Education for all colonial states was improved - schools were set up & curriculum established —> fill skills shortages in other countries after WWII
What are some of the negative impacts of British colonial power
- The majority of crops grown in colonial states were bought by the British at very low prices and then sold off by Britain for large amounts, neo-colonialism, primary manufacturers could not reinvest locally
- Many colonial states did not have their own govts, which caused severe protests
- for independence and instability when made independent
- Discriminating policies & segration were established, which persist
What was the world considered during the time of the British Empire’s expansion
- A uni-polar world
Why did the British empire collapse
-costs
- the costs of maintaining colonies was too high as Britain rebuilt after WW2
- Global trade changed: new industrial powers such as Germany and the USA created new markets and more competition—>
- Trading with African colonies and India were no longer the route to economic superpower
Why did the British empire collapse
-opposition
- anti-colonial movements gained popularity - Independence movements in Ireland and India were eventually successful in forcing the British to abandon control
Why did the British empire collapse
-technology
- Military technology changed - British naval power was no longer capable of defending British colonies admist the USSR & nuclear threat
How did Britain control its colonies
- British military personnel, civils servants & entrepreneurs emigrated to India
- Symbols of Imperial power e.g presidential palace in Delphi
- Educated Indians occupied lower administrative positions - cultural assimilation
- Acculturation - British traditions & a strict social order differentiating White Britsih from Indians
- Collaboration of Indian Princely states
- construction of an extensive rail network
What examples are there of Britain asserting hard power to maintain their power in the colonies
- Britain invested in its navy until it was the most powerful in the world —> keeping countries under British control, enabling territorial expansion
- British colonies often started as trading posts in foreign countries —-> once inavded, they controlled over the countries to protect their trade
What examples are there of Britain asserting soft power to maintain their power in the colonies
- cultural assimilation with jobs for colonised people in the British administration of their countries
- introduced sports e.g cricket & held tournaments like the Empire Games
- British missionaries converted people to Christianity, and especially to the Church of England
What are the 4 mechanisms of indirect control
- political - influences on how a country is governed
- military - stationing of troops & strategic supply of ammunition
- economic - influencing its actions using financial means
- cultural
Give an example of how indirect control is asserted politically in the post-colonial era
- The USA attempted to prevent the spread of communism through ‘containment’ - the US Marshall Plan helped post-war European reconstruction
Give an example of how indirect control is asserted economically in the post-colonial era
- The IMF and World Bank were set up to provide aid to developing countries
- However, on many occasions, help is tied to ‘structural adjustment plans’ that involve the adoption of more free marker policies
Give an example of how indirect control is asserted militarily in the post-colonial era
- The USA currently has 800 million military bases around the world
Give an example of how indirect control is asserted culturally in the post-colonial era
- The USA’s Radio Free europe transmitted Western News & information into Eastern Europe & the USSR during the Cold War
What is a uni-polar world
- one globally dominant superpower, or hyperpower
- one hegemon, unchallenged by other countries
- (in cultural terms, as well as economic, political and military)
What is a bi-polar world
- two opposing superpowers, with different ideologies, but broadly equal in status
What is a multi-polar world
- many broadly equal powers, with regional influence but less global influence
What are the features of Capitalism
- Private ownership of property and businesses
- Wages are based on supply & demand and level of skills
- People have a right to make a profit and keep it
- Ability to buy and sell goods in a free market with little restriction
What are the features of Communism
- Government owns land and businesses
- Wages are determined by government
- Profits are taken by government and invested into services
- Supply of goods controlled by the government
List some of the key events in the cold war
- US Uses Atomic Bombs on Japan to End WWII 1945
- Iron Curtain created
- Marshall Plan & Cominform 1947
- Berlin Blockade and Airlift 1948-1949
- USSR Tests First Nuclear Weapon 1949
- NATO formed 1949
- US Tests First Hydrogen Bomb 1950
- Korean War 1950-1953
- Warsaw Pact formed
- The Space Race Begins 1957
- Vietnam War 1959-1975
- Russians Win Race to Launch Earth Satellite 1957
- USSR Tests the largest Nuclear Weapon Ever Built 1960
What were the 2 earlier Proxy Wars during the Cold War
- Vietnam War – The USA fought directly against groups which were supported by China & the USSR
- Korean War – Korea was divided into the South which was supported by the US and the North which was supported by China and the USSR
Why did the Soviet Union lose the Cold War
- Star Wars - Early 1980 proposed weaponization of outer space - Soviet’s couldn’t match this escalation in defence spending
- The USSR’s economy was about half the size of the USA, & arms race was unsustainable economically
- Invasion of Afghanistan - Soviets invaded, so following the Truman Doctrine U.S. responded by secretly supporting the Mujahedeen
- Proxy wars & supporting allies
Define neo-colonialism
- From a left-wing pov:
- A form of indirect control over developing countries
- Means ‘new colonialism’, where countries remain under control from overseas - even though they are supposedly independent - form of economic imperialism
How is power exerted in a neo-colonial era?
- Strategic alliances
- Aid
- TNCs
- Terms of trade
- Global Finance & Debt
- Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPS)
How is aid a means of exerting power in a neo-colonial era
- a debt-aid relationship —>
- developing countries owe money for past loans to developed countries —>
- but their poverty means they also depend on the hand-outs of foreign aid
How are Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) a means of exerting power in a neo-colonial era
- Countries wishing to have their debt relieved must apply Western Economic Policies
- devised by the World Bank and the IMF,
- resulting in a loss of some of their Economic Sovereignty
How are Terms of Trade a means of exerting power in a neo-colonial era
- developing countries export low value commodities (tea, copper, cocoa)
- but have to import expensive manufactured goods from developed countries
How are TNCs a means of exerting power in a neo-colonial era
- FDI creates big profits for TNCs, and low wages and little skills for the developing world
- resulting in the loss of their brightest and most productive people
- who tend to migrate to developed countries if they can
How is global finance & debt a means of exerting power in a neo-colonial era
- Many Developing nations pay huge sums to the Developed world annually in debt interest, often exceeding aid receipts
Why is the most obvious way of maintaining power not the solution
most obvious way of maintaining power - direct force.
however, power is not generally maintained in this way unless a society’s leaders feel under threat of being overthrown by their people
What is cultural hegemony
- Antonio Gramsci describes cultural hegemony -
- power is maintained hugely by consent
- The values of those in power were accepted by people and this kept them in power
- The media subtly reinforce such values - the idea of the powerful then becomes accepted as the way things are
Give an example of a uni-polar world
- 1800-1919: British Empire
- 1990-2030: USA globalised era
Give an example of a multi-polar world
- 1919-1939: Inter-war period
Give an example of a bi-polar world
- 1945-1990: USA vs USSR, Cold War
Describe the current Sino-African trade relationship
- China’s investment and trade with countries in Africa have grown rapidly
- approx 1 million Chinese are estimated to be living in Africa with large amounts of raw materials
- 2010 - 80% of Chinese imports were mineral products from Africa
What are some positive social impacts of Chinese companies on African nations
- Zimbabwe power staion -
- Angola - agriculture investment gives food security beyond subsistence farming
- Ethiopia - dam construction energy security
What are some positive social impacts of Chinese companies on African nations
Investment in quaternary/ financial sector in South Africa
Better infrastructure facilitates trade - Sudan rail development
What are some positive social impacts of Chinese companies on African nations
- China invested over $4 billion in Ethiopia’s energy sector between 2011 and 2018, accounting for over 50% of new power generation capacity.
- 2023 - launced a UNDP research centre into clean energy
What are some negative social impacts of Chinese companies on African nations
- wages, working conditions, and labour rights are under threat from lack of sovereignty & exploitation of brash guidelines by Chinese TNCs
- Corruption is endemic in many countries - this means that money meant for investment and development is creamed off by rich elites - e.g.
What are some negative economic impacts of Chinese companies on African nations
- local businesses and domestic services may struggle in light of TNCs
- War and conflict in many African and Asian countries has prevented investment and development - Congo, Vietnam - insecure FDI for TNCs
What are some negative environmental impacts of Chinese companies on African nations
- Nigeria - preferential bidding for oil supplies - secure lucrative new Nigerian construction contracts for Chinese TNCs - worse GHG emissions
- some corporation leaders have taken advantage of the relaxed environmental laws in the country by creating lots of pollution
Since 2000 …… has been an emerging power and is identified as the main challenger to the USA hegemon status
China
Why is China not a superpower yet
- The limited reach of its military
- It only has one overseas base
- The navy rarely leaves the Indo-Pacific region
- Its economic output is still lower than that of the USA
- Approximately 25% of China’s population live in poverty (less than US$5.50 a day)
- Many people in China do not have access to good healthcare, education or clean drinking water
- Lack of democracy
- Censorship of media
- Human rights abuses
Is there a global risk of a unipolar world
- A uni-polar world should be** stable** geopolitical status
- there is only one ‘top dog’, but the** costs of being a hegemon are high and hard to sustain**
- the USA has been called ‘the world’s policeman’, meaning it is involved in numerous trouble spots all at the same time - increases stability? helps make world safer?
Is there a global risk of a bipolar world
- Standoffs can occur - re occasions where the USA and USSR almost ended up in a ‘hot’ wa
- Situation is stable but can escalate ‘high risk situation’
- e.g Cuban Missile Crisis in cold war
Is there a global risk of a multipolar world
- Lack of dominant power can lead to increased risk of conflict
- Less stable, creates instability when emerging powers compete with eachother
- e.g power vacuum allowing the rise of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan, with no country prepared to stop them
