Semester 2 Exam** Flashcards
Closes off the larynx during swallowing
Epiglottis
Windpipe
Trachea
Smallest conducting respiratory passageways
Bronchioles
Organs of gas exchange
Lungs
Known as the breathing muscle; separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity
Diaphragm
Helps keep particles from entering the trachea and aso houses the vocal cords
Larynx
Separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity
Hard palate
Breaks down starch during mechanical digestion
Amylase
Helps with mechanical digestion
Teeth
What are teeth made of?
Enamel, dentin, pulp, cementum, nerves, blood vessels
Mixing food with saliva
Bolus
Series of muscular contractions
Peristalsis
Helps to break down protein
Pepsin
Watery mixture of stomach fluids and food
Chyme
Finger like projections in the small intestine
Villi
Keeps the small intestines together
Mesentary
What are the 3 parts of the small intestine?
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
What are the 4 parts of the large intestine?
Ascending, traverse, descending, rectal
What accessory organ produces bile?
Liver
What does bile break down?
Fat, carbs, proteins, detoxes alcohol
What does the pancreas secrete?
Insulin and pancreatic juices
What is the function of the pancreas?
Produce insulin to regulate blood sugar levels, produce pancreatic juices to break down nutrients, produce sodium bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid
Detects tissue damage
Pain receptors
Responds to temperature
Thermoreceptors
Small oval masses of flattened connective tissue; detects changes in pressure or movement
Mechanoreceptors
Detect light energy
Photoreceptors
Oxygen-binding protein in red blood cells
Hemoglobin
Low hematocrit disorder
Anemia
Senses change in the chemical concentration of substances
Chemoreceptors
What is the function of red blood cells?
Increase surface area and transporting gases
The production of red blood cells
Erythropoiesis
What hormone stimulates erythropoiesis?
Erythropoietin
What is the function of the leukocytes?
Protect against infection
Squeezing of leukocytes between the cells of blood vessel walls
Diapedesis
The hormone that stimulates megakaryocytes and platelets develop from hemocytoblasts
Thrombopoietin
What is the function of thrombocytes?
Help in blood clotting
A decrease in the diameter of a blood vessel
Vasoconstriction
An increase in the diameter of a blood vessel
Vasodilation
Part of the pharynx in the posterior part of the nasal cavity
Nasopharynx
What is the function of the nasopharynx?
Provides a passageway for air during breathing
Passageway for food moving downward fro the mouth and for air moving to and from the nasal cavity
Oropharynx
Binds food particles and lubricates the food during swallowing
Mucus
Secretion of the gastric glands in the stomach
Gastric juices
Hormone secreted by the pancreatic islets that releases stored glucose
Glucagon
Lymphocyte that produces and secretes antibodies that bind and destroy foreign antigens
B cell
Proteins that B cells of the immune system produce in response to nonself antigens
Antibodies
Chemicals that stimulate B cells to produce antibodies
Antigens
A type of lymphocyte that interacts directly with antigens, producing the cellular immune response
T cell
What is the function of lacteals?
Absorb digested fats and transport them to the venous circulation
Where are lacteals located?
Lining of the small intestine
Beginning of the large intestine; a large dilated pouchlike structure that hangs slightly below the ileocecal opening
Cecum
Thick folds of the stomach’s inner lining
Rugae
Blood vessels located on the surface of the heart
Coronary blood vessels
Brings newly absorbed nutrients into the sinusoids and nourishes hepatic cells
Hepatic veins
Encloses, protects and regulates the temperature of the testes
Scrotum
Produces sperm cells and secretes male sex hormones
Testes
Stores sperm cells undergoing maturation
Epididymis
Conveys sperm cells to ejaculatory duct
Ductus deferens
Helps to reduce the acidity of semen
Prostate gland
Secretes fluid to lubricate penis
Cowpers/bulbourethral gland
Conveys semen into the vagina during sexual intercourse
Penis
Produces oocytes and female sex hormones
Ovaries
Conveys secondary oocyte to the uterus; site of fertilization
Fallopian tubes
Protects and sustains embryo during pregnancy
Uterus
Narrow inferior end of uterus that leads into the vagina
Cervix
Provides an open channel for offspring during the birth process
Vagina
Cartilage on rib bones that attaches to the sternum; helps rib cage to expand during inhaling/exhaling
Intercostal cartilage
General defense mechanism against pathogens; born with it
Innate
What is the first line of defense?
Skin and mucous
What is the 2nd line of defense?
Chemical barriers, natural killer cells, inflammation, phagocytosis, fever
What are some examples of chemical barriers?
enzymes, HCl, gastric juices
Defends against virus and cancer cells
Natural killer cells
What is the 3rd line of defense?
Antigens (B-cells and T-cells)
Target specific to pathogens (toxins, metabolic products produced by pathogens)
Adaptive
What is the difference between B-cells and T-cells?
T-cells will need phagocytosis to happen before it can digest the antigen
A response that must interact with another cell before it happens
Cell mediated response
A response that happens in blood and bodily fluids
Humoral response
What is the function of the lymph trunks?
Drain lymph from the body
What are the names of the collecting ducts?
Thoracic and right duct
What blood vessels do collecting ducts drain into?
Subclavian vein
Bean shaped with blood vessel nerves and efferent lymphatic vessels attached to the hilum
Lymph nodes
What does the lymph node contain?
Lymphocytes and macrophages
Hormones that influences the maturation of T lymphocytes
Thymosin
What is the function of the spleen in the lymphatic system?
Filters blood and removes damaged blood cells and bacteria
What are the 2 functions of the lymphatic system?
To circulate different materials and to protect against pathogens
What is the difference between veins and lymph vessels?
Lymph vessels have flap-like valves
What happens when large lymph vessels merge?
Become lymphatic trunks
Tiny close-ended tubes that extend into interstitial spaces
Lymph capillary
Fluid inside of lymph capillaries
Lymph
What do lymph capillaries receive?
Tissue fluid
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
Immunity and the transportation of fluids
What are the components of a lymphatic pathway?
Lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic trunk, collecting ducts
How is tissue fluid formed?
Blood plasma leaving blood capillaries
What is the composition of tissue fluid?
Water and dissolved substances
How is lymph formed?
Tissue fluid entering a lymphatic capillary
What is the function of lymph?
Transporting foreign particles to lymph nodes
Describe the forces responsible for the circulation of lymph
Muscular activity and hydrostatic pressure of tissue fluid
A condition that interferes with the flow in lymph
Edema
What is the function of lymph nodes?
Filtering potentially harmful particles from lymph; monitoring body fluids
What is the the function of macrophages?
Engulf and destroy foreign substances, damaged cells, and cellular debris
Inflammation of the lymph nodes
Lymphadenitis
What is the function of the thymus gland?
Releases thymosin that helps to mature T-cells
What characteristics of the spleen allow it to function as a blood reservoir?
It has venous sinuses and blood capillaries in he pulp are permeable
What characters in the spleen allow it to function in the defense against foreign particles?
It has macrophages in the splenic sinus
What kinds of agents cause disease?
Pathogens
What are 2 major types of defenses prevent disease?
Innate and adaptive
An organism or species develops a disease that are unique to it
Species resistance
What structures function as mechanical barriers?
mucus membranes and skin
What enzymes help us resist infection?
Lysozyme, HCl, pepsin, salt
Bind to receptors on uninfected cells, stimulating them to synthesize proteins to prevent replication
Interferon
Tissue response to an injury or infection causing redness and swelling
Inflammation
Blood vessel dilation that increases blood flow
Redness
Increase in permeability of nearby capillaries
Swelling
Blood from deeper body parts
Heat
Stimulation of nearby pain receptors
Pain
How does fever help protect the body from pathogens?
It helps to destroy enzymes that make pathogens grow
Describe how inflammation is a defense against infection
Release chemicals that attract white blood cells to inflammation sites where they phagocytize pathogens
Where do lymphocytes originate?
Red bone marrow
What is the difference between B and T lymphocytes?
B originates in bone marrow while T is in the thymus
What are the functions of lymphocytes?
Respond to antigens; immunity
How do lymphocytes carry out these functions?
Cell mediated and humoral response
Involves a phagocyte digesting an antigen before this response can happen
Cell mediated
Involves a B-cell digesting an entire antigen; happens in body fluids
Humoral
B or T cells produced in the primary immune response that respond rapidly if the same antigen is encountered again
Memory cells
Destroy specific antigens or antigen bearing particles
Antibodies
The first time a B or T cells encounters an antigen, release some antibodies
Primary immune response
Memory B or T cells will recognize the antigen right away and releases lots of antibodies
Secondary immune response
Exposure to live pathogens
Naturally acquired active immunity
Exposure to a vaccine containing weakened or dead pathogens
Artificially acquired active immunity
Injection or gamma globulin containing antibodies
Artificially acquired passive immunity
Antibodies passed to the fetus from the mother
Naturally acquired passive immunity
Repeated exposure of the skin to certain allergens which activates T-cells to respond
Delayed allergic reaction
Activates B-cells right away and attacks the allergen
Immediate allergic reaction
How is a tissue rejection reaction an immune response?
Immune system may think of the tissue as foreign so it attacks it
What could we do to reduce the possibility of tissue/organ rejection?
Immunosuppressive drugs
Trace the flow of lymph capillaries to the subclavian veins
Lymph capillaries, afferent lymphatic vessels, efferent lymphatic vessels, lymph trunk, collecting duct, subclavian vein