Section 1: Applied Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards
What is atherosclerosis?
Atherosclerosis occurs when arteries harden and narrow as they become clogged up by fatty deposits(atheroma)
What are the two types of cholesterol?
Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
High density lipoproteins (HDLs)
What are cilia?
Cilia are microscopic hair-like projections that help to sweep away fluids and particles
What are the effects of a stroke?
A stroke can lead to brain injury, disability and sometimes death
What is blood pressure?
Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the blood vessel walls
What are the effects of smoking on the alveoli?
Smoking can damage the walls of the alveoli meaning they break down and join together forming larger air spaces than usual which reduces gaseous exchange efficiency. The risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is also increased.
What are the benefits of exercise in terms of heart disease?
Benefits of regular exercise for reducing risk of heart attacks:
- helps to keep the heart in shape
- cardiac muscle bigger and stronger so increased stroke volume
- maintains the flexibility of blood vessels which ensures good blood flow
- low cholesterol levels
- normal blood pressure
What is the effect of exercise on cholesterol levels?
Regular exercise increases HDLs and lowers LDL levels
What do LDLs do?
LDLs transport cholesterol in the blood to the tissues and are considered ‘bad’ cholesterol because they increase the risk of heart disease
What is the effect of regular exercise on blood pressure?
Regular exercise can reduce blood pressure by:
Reducing the risk of heart attack by up to 20% because exercise lowers systolic and diastolic pressure by up to 5-10mmHg
How does a heart attack occur?
Heart attacks can occur when a piece of fatty deposit (atheroma) breaks off to cause a blood clot which results in a blockage that can cut off the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart
What are the effects of high blood pressure?
High blood pressure puts extra strain on the arteries and the heart. If left untreated high blood pressure increases risk of heart attack, kidney disease, heart failure, stroke or dementia
What is the effect of exercise on strokes?
Regular exercise can help lower your blood pressure and help you maintain a healthy weight which can reduce the risk of a stroke by 27%
What do HDLs do?
HDLs transport cholesterol in the blood to the liver where it is broken down. Classed as ‘good’ cholesterol
What are the causes of atherosclerosis?
- high blood pressure
- high levels of cholesterol
- lack of exercise
- smoking
What is the effect of smoking on the respiratory system?
- Smoking can cause irritation to trachea and bronchi. It damages the cells lining the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles which are lined with cilia.
- smoking reduces lung function and increases breathlessness caused by the swelling and narrowing of the arteries
How does smoking affect the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood?
Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke binds more readily to haemoglobin than oxygen which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, which increases breathlessness during exercise
What happens when cilia are damaged?
When cilia are damaged, excess muscle builds up in the lung passages which leads to a smokers cough trying to clear the excess mucus
What is angina?
Angina is the pain and discomfort that occurs as a result of the coronary arteries narrowing because they are unable to deliver enough oxygen to the heart
What are the 2 main types of stroke?
2 main types of stroke:
- Ischaemic (most common) when a blood clot stops blood supply
- Haemorrgaic occurs when a weakened blood vessel supplying the brain bursts
What is a stroke?
A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is cut off
What is a motor unit?
A motor neurone and its muscle fibres
What are motor neurones?
Nerve cells which transmit the brain’s instructions as electrical impulses to the muscles
What is a neuromuscular joint?
Where the motor neurone and muscle fibre meet
What is the all or none law?
Where a sequence of impulses has to be of sufficient intensity (threshold) to stimulate all the muscle fibres in a motor unit for a contraction to occur (if not, none of them contract)
What is wave summation?
Where there is repeated nerve impulse with no time to relax so a smooth, sustained contraction occurs rather than twitches
What is a tetanic contraction?
A sustained muscle contraction caused by a series of fast repeating stimuli (calcium is released each time the nerve impulse reaches the cell and it is needed for a muscle to contract)
What is spatial summation?
When the strength of contraction changes by altering the number and size of the muscle’s motor units, it occurs when impulses are received at the same time at different places on the neurone
Name 2 different types of joints?
- ball and socket
- hinge
Name the joint and the articulating bones around the ankle
- hinge joint
- talus, tibia, fibula
Name the joint and the articulating bones around the knee
- hinge joint
- femur, tibia
Name the joint and the articulating bones around the hip
- ball and socket
- femur, pelvis
Name the joint and the articulating bones around the shoulder
- ball and socket
- humerus, scapula
Name the joint and the articulating bones around the elbow
- hinge joint
- ulna, radius, humerus
What are the 3 planes and axes in pairs?
FTS,SLT
- frontal plan, sagittal axis
- transverse plane, longitudinal axis
- sagittal plane, transverse axis
How does each plane divide the body?
- sagittal plane divides the body into left and right
- frontal plane divides the body into front and back
- transverse plane divides the body into top and bottom
Where does each axes run?
- transverse axis runs from side to side across the body
- sagittal axis runs from front to back
- longitudinal axis runs from top to bottom
What joint actions take place in the sagittal plane, transverse axis?
- flexion
- extension
- plantar-flexion
- dorsi-flexion
- hyper-extension
What joint actions take place in the frontal plane and sagittal axis?
- abduction
- adduction
What joint actions take place in the transverse plane and longitudinal axis?
- rotation
- horizontal abduction
- horizontal adduction
What is flexion and extension?
Flexion= decreasing the angle at between the bones of the joint Extension= increasing the angle at between the bones of the joint
What is plantar-flexion and dorsi-flexion?
Plantar-flexion= pointing your toes/ pushing down on your toes Dorsi-flexion= pulling the toes up to the shin
What is hyper-extension?
Increasing the angle between the bones of the joint beyond 180 degrees
What is abduction and adduction?
Abduction= movement of a limb away from the midline of the body Adduction= movement of a limb towards the midline of the body
What is horizontal abduction and adduction?
Horizontal abduction= movement of a limb backwards while it is held parallel to the ground
Horizontal adduction= movement of a limb forwards while it is held parallel to the ground
Name all the characteristics of Type I (slow oxidative) muscle fibres
- slow contraction speed
- small motor neurone size
- slow motor neurone conduction capacity
- low force produced
- low fatigability
- high mitochondrial density
- high myoglobin content
- high capillary density
- very high aerobic capacity
- low anaerobic capacity
- low myosin ATPase
- low glycolytic enzyme activity
Name all the characteristics of Type IIa (fast oxidative glycolytic) muscle fibres
- fast contraction speed
- large motor neurone size
- fast motor neurone conduction capacity
- high force produced
- medium fatigability
- medium mitochondrial density
- medium myoglobin content
- medium capillary density
- medium aerobic capacity
- high anaerobic capacity
- high myosin ATPase
- high glycolytic enzyme activity
Name all the characteristics of Type IIx (fast glycolytic) muscle fibres
- fast contraction speed
- large motor neurone size
- fast motor neurone conduction capacity
- high force produced
- high fatigability
- low mitochondrial density
- low myoglobin content
- low capillary density
- low aerobic capacity
- very high anaerobic capacity
- very high myosin ATPase
- very high glycolytic enzyme activity
Name the 3 types of muscle fibres
- slow oxidative
- fast oxidative glycolytic
- fast glycolytic
What is PNF?
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation- an advanced stretching technique
What are muscle spindles?
these detect how far and how fast a muscle is being stretched and produce the stretch reflex
What are golgi tendon organs?
these are activated when there is tension in a muscle
What’s an isometric contraction?
when there is tension in a muscle but not visible movement
Define autogenic inhibition
when there is a sudden relaxation of the muscle in response to high tension. the receptors involved in this process are golgi tendon organs
What’s hypertrophy?
where the muscle has become bigger and stronger
What is the sympathetic system?
a part of the autonomic nervous system that speeds up heart rate
What is the parasympathetic system?
a part of the autonomic nervous system that decreases heart rate
What is the medulla oblongata?
the most important part of the brain as it regulates processes that keeps us alive e.g. breathing and heart rate
What are chemoreceptors?
tiny structures in the carotid arteries and aortic arch that detect changes in blood acidity caused by and increase or decrease in carbon dioxide concentration
What are baroreceptors?
special sensors in tissues in the aortic arch, carotid sinus, heart and pulmonary vessels that respond to changes in blood pressure to either increase or decrease heart rate
What are proprioceptors?
sensory nerve endings in the muscles, tendons and joints that detect changes in muscle movement
What’s adrenaline?
a stress hormone that is released by the sympathetic nerves and cardiac nerve during exercise which causes an increase in HR
What is stroke volume?
the volume of the blood pumped out by the heart ventricles in each contraction
Describe the diastole phase
when the heart relaxes to fill with blood
Define the ejection fraction
the percentage of blood pumped out by the left ventricle per beat
What is starling’s law?
increased venous return —> greater diastolic filling of heart —> cardiac muscle stretched —> more force of contraction —> increased ejection fraction
What is cardiac output?
the volume of blood pumped out by the heart ventricles per minute
Define cardiac hypertrophy
the thickening of the muscular wall of the heart so it becomes bigger and stronger; also can mean a larger ventricular cavity
What is bradycardia?
a decrease in resting heart rate to below 60bpm
Define myogenic
the capacity of the heart to generate its own impulses
Define systole
when the heart contracts
Describe the cardiac conduction system
- heart is myogenic it generates its own impulse
- impulse begins in the SAN
- impulse spreads through the heart in a wave of excitation
- from the SAN the electrical impulse spreads through the walls of the atria, causing them to contract
- impulse passes through the AVN, the AVN delays the transmission for 0.1 seconds (so atria fully contract)
- impulse passed down through the bundle of His (located in the septum) and spreads down the purkinje fibres that spread through the walls of the ventricles, causing them to contract
