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a level pe > Section 1: Applied Anatomy and Physiology > Flashcards

Section 1: Applied Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

Atherosclerosis occurs when arteries harden and narrow as they become clogged up by fatty deposits(atheroma)

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2
Q

What are the two types of cholesterol?

A

Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)

High density lipoproteins (HDLs)

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3
Q

What are cilia?

A

Cilia are microscopic hair-like projections that help to sweep away fluids and particles

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4
Q

What are the effects of a stroke?

A

A stroke can lead to brain injury, disability and sometimes death

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5
Q

What is blood pressure?

A

Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the blood vessel walls

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6
Q

What are the effects of smoking on the alveoli?

A

Smoking can damage the walls of the alveoli meaning they break down and join together forming larger air spaces than usual which reduces gaseous exchange efficiency. The risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is also increased.

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7
Q

What are the benefits of exercise in terms of heart disease?

A

Benefits of regular exercise for reducing risk of heart attacks:

  • helps to keep the heart in shape
  • cardiac muscle bigger and stronger so increased stroke volume
  • maintains the flexibility of blood vessels which ensures good blood flow
  • low cholesterol levels
  • normal blood pressure
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8
Q

What is the effect of exercise on cholesterol levels?

A

Regular exercise increases HDLs and lowers LDL levels

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9
Q

What do LDLs do?

A

LDLs transport cholesterol in the blood to the tissues and are considered ‘bad’ cholesterol because they increase the risk of heart disease

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10
Q

What is the effect of regular exercise on blood pressure?

A

Regular exercise can reduce blood pressure by:

Reducing the risk of heart attack by up to 20% because exercise lowers systolic and diastolic pressure by up to 5-10mmHg

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11
Q

How does a heart attack occur?

A

Heart attacks can occur when a piece of fatty deposit (atheroma) breaks off to cause a blood clot which results in a blockage that can cut off the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart

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12
Q

What are the effects of high blood pressure?

A

High blood pressure puts extra strain on the arteries and the heart. If left untreated high blood pressure increases risk of heart attack, kidney disease, heart failure, stroke or dementia

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13
Q

What is the effect of exercise on strokes?

A

Regular exercise can help lower your blood pressure and help you maintain a healthy weight which can reduce the risk of a stroke by 27%

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14
Q

What do HDLs do?

A

HDLs transport cholesterol in the blood to the liver where it is broken down. Classed as ‘good’ cholesterol

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15
Q

What are the causes of atherosclerosis?

A
  • high blood pressure
  • high levels of cholesterol
  • lack of exercise
  • smoking
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16
Q

What is the effect of smoking on the respiratory system?

A
  • Smoking can cause irritation to trachea and bronchi. It damages the cells lining the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles which are lined with cilia.
  • smoking reduces lung function and increases breathlessness caused by the swelling and narrowing of the arteries
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17
Q

How does smoking affect the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood?

A

Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke binds more readily to haemoglobin than oxygen which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, which increases breathlessness during exercise

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18
Q

What happens when cilia are damaged?

A

When cilia are damaged, excess muscle builds up in the lung passages which leads to a smokers cough trying to clear the excess mucus

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19
Q

What is angina?

A

Angina is the pain and discomfort that occurs as a result of the coronary arteries narrowing because they are unable to deliver enough oxygen to the heart

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20
Q

What are the 2 main types of stroke?

A

2 main types of stroke:

  • Ischaemic (most common) when a blood clot stops blood supply
  • Haemorrgaic occurs when a weakened blood vessel supplying the brain bursts
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21
Q

What is a stroke?

A

A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is cut off

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22
Q

What is a motor unit?

A

A motor neurone and its muscle fibres

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23
Q

What are motor neurones?

A

Nerve cells which transmit the brain’s instructions as electrical impulses to the muscles

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24
Q

What is a neuromuscular joint?

A

Where the motor neurone and muscle fibre meet

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25
Q

What is the all or none law?

A

Where a sequence of impulses has to be of sufficient intensity (threshold) to stimulate all the muscle fibres in a motor unit for a contraction to occur (if not, none of them contract)

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26
Q

What is wave summation?

A

Where there is repeated nerve impulse with no time to relax so a smooth, sustained contraction occurs rather than twitches

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27
Q

What is a tetanic contraction?

A

A sustained muscle contraction caused by a series of fast repeating stimuli (calcium is released each time the nerve impulse reaches the cell and it is needed for a muscle to contract)

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28
Q

What is spatial summation?

A

When the strength of contraction changes by altering the number and size of the muscle’s motor units, it occurs when impulses are received at the same time at different places on the neurone

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29
Q

Name 2 different types of joints?

A
  • ball and socket

- hinge

30
Q

Name the joint and the articulating bones around the ankle

A
  • hinge joint

- talus, tibia, fibula

31
Q

Name the joint and the articulating bones around the knee

A
  • hinge joint

- femur, tibia

32
Q

Name the joint and the articulating bones around the hip

A
  • ball and socket

- femur, pelvis

33
Q

Name the joint and the articulating bones around the shoulder

A
  • ball and socket

- humerus, scapula

34
Q

Name the joint and the articulating bones around the elbow

A
  • hinge joint

- ulna, radius, humerus

35
Q

What are the 3 planes and axes in pairs?

A

FTS,SLT

  • frontal plan, sagittal axis
  • transverse plane, longitudinal axis
  • sagittal plane, transverse axis
36
Q

How does each plane divide the body?

A
  • sagittal plane divides the body into left and right
  • frontal plane divides the body into front and back
  • transverse plane divides the body into top and bottom
37
Q

Where does each axes run?

A
  • transverse axis runs from side to side across the body
  • sagittal axis runs from front to back
  • longitudinal axis runs from top to bottom
38
Q

What joint actions take place in the sagittal plane, transverse axis?

A
  • flexion
  • extension
  • plantar-flexion
  • dorsi-flexion
  • hyper-extension
39
Q

What joint actions take place in the frontal plane and sagittal axis?

A
  • abduction

- adduction

40
Q

What joint actions take place in the transverse plane and longitudinal axis?

A
  • rotation
  • horizontal abduction
  • horizontal adduction
41
Q

What is flexion and extension?

A 
Flexion= decreasing the angle at between the bones of the joint
Extension= increasing the angle at between the bones of the joint
42
Q

What is plantar-flexion and dorsi-flexion?

A 
Plantar-flexion= pointing your toes/ pushing down on your toes
Dorsi-flexion= pulling the toes up to the shin
43
Q

What is hyper-extension?

A

Increasing the angle between the bones of the joint beyond 180 degrees

44
Q

What is abduction and adduction?

A 
Abduction= movement of a limb away from the midline of the body
Adduction= movement of a limb towards the midline of the body
45
Q

What is horizontal abduction and adduction?

A

Horizontal abduction= movement of a limb backwards while it is held parallel to the ground
Horizontal adduction= movement of a limb forwards while it is held parallel to the ground

46
Q

Name all the characteristics of Type I (slow oxidative) muscle fibres

A
  • slow contraction speed
  • small motor neurone size
  • slow motor neurone conduction capacity
  • low force produced
  • low fatigability
  • high mitochondrial density
  • high myoglobin content
  • high capillary density
  • very high aerobic capacity
  • low anaerobic capacity
  • low myosin ATPase
  • low glycolytic enzyme activity
47
Q

Name all the characteristics of Type IIa (fast oxidative glycolytic) muscle fibres

A
  • fast contraction speed
  • large motor neurone size
  • fast motor neurone conduction capacity
  • high force produced
  • medium fatigability
  • medium mitochondrial density
  • medium myoglobin content
  • medium capillary density
  • medium aerobic capacity
  • high anaerobic capacity
  • high myosin ATPase
  • high glycolytic enzyme activity
48
Q

Name all the characteristics of Type IIx (fast glycolytic) muscle fibres

A
  • fast contraction speed
  • large motor neurone size
  • fast motor neurone conduction capacity
  • high force produced
  • high fatigability
  • low mitochondrial density
  • low myoglobin content
  • low capillary density
  • low aerobic capacity
  • very high anaerobic capacity
  • very high myosin ATPase
  • very high glycolytic enzyme activity
49
Q

Name the 3 types of muscle fibres

A
  • slow oxidative
  • fast oxidative glycolytic
  • fast glycolytic
50
Q

What is PNF?

A

proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation- an advanced stretching technique

51
Q

What are muscle spindles?

A

these detect how far and how fast a muscle is being stretched and produce the stretch reflex

52
Q

What are golgi tendon organs?

A

these are activated when there is tension in a muscle

53
Q

What’s an isometric contraction?

A

when there is tension in a muscle but not visible movement

54
Q

Define autogenic inhibition

A

when there is a sudden relaxation of the muscle in response to high tension. the receptors involved in this process are golgi tendon organs

55
Q

What’s hypertrophy?

A

where the muscle has become bigger and stronger

56
Q

What is the sympathetic system?

A

a part of the autonomic nervous system that speeds up heart rate

57
Q

What is the parasympathetic system?

A

a part of the autonomic nervous system that decreases heart rate

58
Q

What is the medulla oblongata?

A

the most important part of the brain as it regulates processes that keeps us alive e.g. breathing and heart rate

59
Q

What are chemoreceptors?

A

tiny structures in the carotid arteries and aortic arch that detect changes in blood acidity caused by and increase or decrease in carbon dioxide concentration

60
Q

What are baroreceptors?

A

special sensors in tissues in the aortic arch, carotid sinus, heart and pulmonary vessels that respond to changes in blood pressure to either increase or decrease heart rate

61
Q

What are proprioceptors?

A

sensory nerve endings in the muscles, tendons and joints that detect changes in muscle movement

62
Q

What’s adrenaline?

A

a stress hormone that is released by the sympathetic nerves and cardiac nerve during exercise which causes an increase in HR

63
Q

What is stroke volume?

A

the volume of the blood pumped out by the heart ventricles in each contraction

64
Q

Describe the diastole phase

A

when the heart relaxes to fill with blood

65
Q

Define the ejection fraction

A

the percentage of blood pumped out by the left ventricle per beat

66
Q

What is starling’s law?

A

increased venous return —> greater diastolic filling of heart —> cardiac muscle stretched —> more force of contraction —> increased ejection fraction

67
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

the volume of blood pumped out by the heart ventricles per minute

68
Q

Define cardiac hypertrophy

A

the thickening of the muscular wall of the heart so it becomes bigger and stronger; also can mean a larger ventricular cavity

69
Q

What is bradycardia?

A

a decrease in resting heart rate to below 60bpm

70
Q

Define myogenic

A

the capacity of the heart to generate its own impulses

71
Q

Define systole

A

when the heart contracts

72
Q

Describe the cardiac conduction system

A
  1. heart is myogenic it generates its own impulse
  2. impulse begins in the SAN
  3. impulse spreads through the heart in a wave of excitation
  4. from the SAN the electrical impulse spreads through the walls of the atria, causing them to contract
  5. impulse passes through the AVN, the AVN delays the transmission for 0.1 seconds (so atria fully contract)
  6. impulse passed down through the bundle of His (located in the septum) and spreads down the purkinje fibres that spread through the walls of the ventricles, causing them to contract

a level pe (31 decks)

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