2.2 principles and theories of learning

Question 1

What is feedback?

Answer 1

Feedback is information to aid error correction

Question 2

What are the 6 types of feedback?

Answer 2

Types of feedback:
Positive 
Negative 
Intrinsic 
Extrinsic 
Knowledge of performance 
Knowledge of results

Question 3

What is positive feedback?

Answer 3

Positive feedback is information about what is good and often combined with praise. Tells the performer what is going well

Question 4

What is negative feedback?

Answer 4

Negative feedback is information about what is going wrong so errors can be corrected and bad habits eliminated

Question 5

What is intrinsic feedback?

Answer 5

Intrinsic feedback is information about the task that comes from within by kinaesthesia and proprioception

Question 6

What is extrinsic feedback?

Answer 6

Extrinsic feedback is information coming from outside sources e.g. visual, auditory or coach

Question 7

What is knowledge of results?

Answer 7

Knowledge of results is information concerning the outcome, usually extrinsic from coach, crowd. e.g. did the netball shot go in

Question 8

What is knowledge of performance?

Answer 8

Information concerning the technique and how this can be developed to produce a better performance than the last

Question 9

Why is feedback used?

Answer 9

Feedback is used to:
Tell the performer the movement is correct
Reinforce the correct movement thus strengthening the S-R bond
Build the confidence and motivation levels of the performer
Build up the schema
Strengthen the motor programme
Ensure that the performer recognises what is correct or wrong
Ensure that learning occurs

Question 10

What are the types of feedback for cognitive stage learners?

Answer 10

Cognitive:

• Positive and encouragement to maintain motivation levels
• external advice(needed as they have little existing knowledge)
• knowledge of results

Question 11

What are the types of feedback for associative phase learners?

Answer 11

Early in the phase:
External information needed to refine movements
Later in the phase:
Intrinsic feedback used to control the performance

Question 12

What are the types of feedback used for autonomous phase learners?

Answer 12

Detailed feedback on how to control the performance.

Benefit from error correction and use existing knowledge and intrinsic feedback to make adjustments

Question 13

What is a learning plateau?

Answer 13

a period of no improvement in performance

Question 14

What are the 4 stages of a learning curve?

Answer 14

1) rate of learning is slow and performance level poor because the performer is new to the task and in the cognitive stage of learning, possibly using trial and error learning
2) rapid acceleration in the rate of learning because the performer has begun to master the task with reinforcement and motivation
3) reached a plateau where there is no improvement in the rate of learning
4) period near the end of the task where performance begins to deteriorate, possibly due to fatigue

Question 15

State the causes of a plateau

Answer 15

• lack of motivation: lack of incentives or extrinsic rewards may cause performer to lose drive for the task
• boredom: repetitive nature of closed skill may cause boredom
• coaching: incorrect instructions or practice methods so skill isn’t performed correctly
• limit of ability: performer has reaches full extent of their ability
• targets set too low: task doesn’t allow the performer to use the full set of their skills
• fatigue: DOMS may occur as well as fatigue

Question 16

State the solutions to the plateau effect

Answer 16

• task could be extended so there are new challenges, targets or goals
• player could find a new coach
• coach could offer more praise and positive reinforcement to maintain motivation
• rest could be provided to avoid fatigue
• more variety added to the task so boredom is avoided
• concept of a plateau explained so performer doesn’t take personal responsibility for lack of improvement
• player could receive feedback to improve performance and motivation

Question 17

Define visual guodance

Answer 17

guidance that can be seen, a demonstration of the required task

Question 18

How can visual guidance be given?

Answer 18

• demonstration by coach or other player

- media formats e.g. social media sites, books, charts or videos

Question 19

What is the intention of visual guidance?

Answer 19

-to create a mental image for a beginner that can be used for further practice

Question 20

What are the requirements of a demonstration for visual guidance?

Answer 20

• demonstration should be within the capabilities of the player copying the demo
• repeat demo
• allow performer time to practice it
• shown from different angles
• key points of the skill should be highlighted
• reinforcement used to encourage retention of the skill in the memory

Question 21

Define operant conditioning

Answer 21

the use of reinforcement to ensure correct responses are repeated

Question 22

State the 3 features of operant conditioning

Answer 22

• based on trial and error learning
• coach may manipulate the environment
• shapes behaviour by using reinforcement

Question 23

Define satisfier

Answer 23

an action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated

Question 24

Define annoyer

Answer 24

an action that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses

Question 25

Define positive reinforcement

Answer 25

a pleasant stimulus given after the correct response

Question 26

Define negative reinforcement

Answer 26

the removal of an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response

Question 27

Define punishment

Answer 27

an unpleasant stimulus to prevent the incorrect response recurring

Question 28

What are the 4 stages to observational learning?

Answer 28

1. attention
2. retention
3. motor production
4. motivation

Question 29

How can a coach make the demonstration attractive to the performer?

Answer 29

• making the model stand out by making it loud or bright
• point out the function or reason for learning it
• make sure any information given is loud and clear
• demonstration should be accurate and always correct

Question 30

Define retention

Answer 30

remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it

Question 31

How can a coach ensure that the demonstration is retained?

Answer 31

• break any information given into chunks and repeating it
• make sure the demonstration is accurate and clear e.g. use of role model or expert player
• learner should attempt the skill as soon as it is seen

Question 32

Define motor production

Answer 32

having the mental and physical ability to do the task

Question 33

Define motivation

Answer 33

having the drive to do the task

Question 34

How can a coach motivate players in observational learning?

Answer 34

• giving praise and rewards

- offering positive feedback and positive reinforcement

Question 35

When are model demonstrations more likely to be copied?

Answer 35

• performed by a player of similar ability
• reinforced
• visually and physically powerful
• consistent
• relevant

Question 36

Define social development

Answer 36

learning by association with others

Question 37

What is inter-psychological learning?

Answer 37

learning from others externally

Question 38

What is intra-psychological learning?

Answer 38

learning from within after gaining external knowledge from others

Question 39

What are the 3 stages of proximal development?

Answer 39

1. what can i do alone?
2. what can i do with help?
3. what can i not do yet?

Question 40

Define insight learning

Answer 40

using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill