3.3 Post world war II

Question 1

State the key features of early twentieth-century amateurs

Answer 1

• high status
• controllers of sport: middle+ upper classes controlled sport, excluding working class from amateur sports
• top performers: top performers usually came from middle or upper classes
• highly moral: had sufficient income + leisure time to play sport for the love of it, emphasised fair play + sportsmanship

Question 2

State the key features of modern-day amateurs

Answer 2

• tend to be of lower status (professionals now high status)
• some high-level performers still not professional
• blurring of amateur and professional distinctions, less likely of exclusions as society becomes more fair
• performance at the top level in most sports open to all
• some amateurs receive finance to pay for training expenses

Question 3

State the positives of modern-day amateurism

Answer 3

• codes of amateurism are still evident in British sport e.g. fair play and sportsmanship
• viewed positively and promoted in a number of ways e.g. shaking hands, fair play awards,

Question 4

State the factors responsible for the growth of professional sport/ characteristics of modern-day professionalism

Answer 4

• all classes can compete: social class is no longer a barrier for participation or success
• people are respected for their talents and efforts in reaching the top
• high rewards for professionals through media and sponsorship
• professionals have more time to train, leads to higher standard of performance than amateurs in the same sport
• increases in financial rewards via celebrity status, more media coverage and investment in sport
• positive role models act as motivators for others to achieve in professional sport
• money invested into sports enables events + sports to operate + survive commercially
• more spectators attend matches (more affordable travel)

Question 5

State the reasons for the growth and development of association football

Answer 5

• urbanisation: large numbers living in one place gave large captive audience for football, lack of space led to purpose-built facilities
• more free time: typically Saturday 3pm to watch association football
• more disposable income: improved standards of living via higher wages meant working class had enough money to pay for gate fees and transport
• improved transport: development of trains meant fans could watch away games + increased regularity of matches
• increased professionalism: opportunities to play professionally increased e.g. broken-time payments
• social class links: middle-class influence and approval gave it more respectability
• increased organisation: ex-public schoolboys set up FA so became highly structured and standardised. national rules + codification meant the game was more controlled and less violent. referees controlled the games

Question 6

Why did the wages of football players not reflect the increase in commercialisation in the first half of the 20th century?

Answer 6

setting of maximum wage that constrained earnings

Question 7

Identify the socio-cultural factors that led to an increase in opportunities for elite female footballers

Answer 7

• equal opportunities: more sports available + socially acceptable. sex discrimination act passed-less sexual discrimination in sport based on gender. war effort broke down stereotypes about women’s physical capabilities
• increased media coverage of women’s football
• more female role models in football: as performers, coaches and officials
• more provision via school PE programmes
• increased approval/encouragement in the FA
• more clubs forming: at local and professional levels
• increased participation via more funding into the game (grassroots + elite)
• more free time: traditional domestic responsibility role has decreased

Question 8

State the key features of lawn tennis as it developed in the industrial and post-industrial era

Answer 8

• middle-class intervention: middle-class development as an affordable alternative to real tennis, which set the middle-class apart from the working class + led to private clubs developing
• played by the middle-class: played in middle-class suburban gardens big enough to house private tennis courts
• organised by middle class
• use of specialist equipment: the middle class had sufficient finance to purchase their own equipment
• use of standardised rules
• played by males + females
• public provision: eventually spread to lower class via public parks

Question 9

Define the open era

Answer 9

when professional tennis players were allowed to compete alongside amateurs and earn money

Question 10

State the reasons for an increase in elite female footballers

Answer 10

• FA approval/active involvement in women’s football in a variety of roles, including officiating e.g. creation of ‘Women’s Referee Development Pathway’
• the FA National Referee Strategy had a focus on female referee recruitment and retention
• use of positive role models/mentors to encourage women to become high level referees
• FA Respect Campaign aiming to improve player conduct and behaviour towards all referees
• general increase in equality in society and recognition of women’s ability to officiate football matches at highest level
• legal support/legislation in place against sexism e.g. the Sex Discrimination Act

Question 11

State the barriers that female referees face

Answer 11

• physical/psychological intimidation
• lack of adherence to FA Respect protocol
• personal factors- allegations of sexism and marginalisation
• organisational factors- lack of support/training/feedback on performance within the system for female referees
• lack of female role models at elite level

Question 12

Define commercialisation

Answer 12

the process of attempting to gain money from an activity e.g. sport

Question 13

Define sponsorship

Answer 13

when a company pays for their products to be publicly displayed or advertised, usually as an attempt to increase the sales of their goods

Question 14

State the characteristics of commercial sport

Answer 14

• professional sport: high quality and high skill levels
• sponsorship and business
• entertainment: viewing needs to fit into a relatively short timescale
• contracts e.g. bidding for television rights
• athletes as commodities e.g. an asset to companies through product endorsement which increases sales and profit, athletes become more well known
• widespread media coverage
• sports that are visually appealing, high skill levels, well-matched competition and simple rules

Question 15

State the effects of commercialisation on sport

Answer 15

• rules and scoring systems have been changed or introduced to speed up action and prevent spectator boredom e.g. multi-ball system in football
• breaks extended/provided in play to allow sponsors to advertise products
• competition formats changed
• sports played by females receive less coverage which can negatively affect participation and funding- fewer female role models and less money to re-invest in sport at grassroots and professional levels
• increased use of technology through media led to more personal experience

Question 16

What different types of media are involved in covering sport?

Answer 16

• newspapers
• TV
• radio
• internet
• social media

Question 17

What are the effects of commercialisation on professional performers?

Answer 17

• receive high incomes for sports participation + commercial activities promoting products-gives financial security and allows full-time training and competition
• paid for successful results- winning is important
• pressure to perform when injured
• must specialise in a sport in order to compete- requires serious training, dedication and self-sacrifice
• effectively entertainers who become household names e.g. Messi and Ronaldo
• controlled by the sponsor, become public commodities and suffer from lack of privacy

Question 18

What are the reasons that companies invest large amounts of money into sport?

Answer 18

• increased sales/commercial benefits/increased profit/increased publicity
• increases brand awareness/adds value to a brand e.g. Nike golf and Rory McIltroy
• creates an association with excellence at the highest levels of sport
• creates an association with the healthy image of sport
• gives an opportunity to link to corporate hospitality
• sponsorship can decrease the amount of tax paid by a company
• improve company morale

Question 19

Define globbalisation

Answer 19

the process whereby nations are increasingly being linked together and people are becoming more interdependent via improvements in communication and travel

Question 20

How is globalisation seen in sport?

Answer 20

• sponsorship of events
• the way players are recruited to play for teams in countries other than their own
• the spreading of different sports to new nations e.g. 1994 soccer world cup hosted in USA
• increasing pressure on athletes to perform at their best, may lead to doping

Question 21

What are the positive effects media can have on a sport?

Answer 21

• increased participation in a sport e.g. via positive role models
• increased funding/sponsorship opportunities, increased income via TV rights
• myths and stereotypes can be broken down e.g. the ability of women to play sports at a high level
• minority sports and highlighted and promoted
• sport is made more entertaining/attractive to viewer
• positive impact of introduction of technology via media innovations e.g. refs being miked up so that audience can hear them, Hawkeye so refs can make difficult decisions