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IPAP 21-2 Freshman Semester > Research And Eval > Flashcards

Research And Eval Flashcards

1
Q

What is the gold standard of research

A

RCT

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2
Q

What is the definition of Evidence Based Practice

A

The practice of health care in which the practitioner systematically finds, appraises, and uses the most current and valid research findings as the basis for clinical decisions

*Results in the best possible outcome for your patients**

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3
Q

What is a meta-analysis

A

Pools data and statistically interprets is from several studies

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4
Q

What is an efficacy trial

A

Attempts to learn if a drug, surgical procedure, or admin program works under ideal circumstances

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5
Q

What is the Pearson correlation

A

The most common measure of correlation

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6
Q

What is subject variation in measurement error

A

Variability of individual subjects

Like different answers on a survey

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7
Q

What is non differential miscalculation

A

When the bias is random or equally present in each group ( case vs control )

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8
Q

Does a chi square give any indication about the variable relationship strength

A

NO

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9
Q

What is a histogram,

A

Is a bar graph, comprised of a series of columns, each representing one score or class interval

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10
Q

What does a negative LR tell you

LR-

A

Is the proportion of diseased people with a negative test (1-sensitivity) divided by the proportion of non-diseased people with a negative test (specificity)

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11
Q

What kind of study is a BP Study

A

A normative study

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12
Q

What is evidence based medicine

A

To integrate clinical expertise with the best available evidence

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13
Q

What are three types of experimental research designs

A

RCTs, (gold standard)
Single subject
Quasi-experiments

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14
Q

What is non-experimental research

A

Refers to investigation that are generally more descriptive or exploratory in nature and that exhibit direct control over the studied variables

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15
Q

What is misclassification bias

A

Occurs when those that have the disease are mistakenly put in the control group

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16
Q

A random error is also know as

A

Chance variation

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17
Q

What are the four paradigm shifts which have emerged in healthcare

A
  • evidence based practice
  • focus on translational research
  • conceptualization of health and disability
  • importance of Inter professional collaboration
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18
Q

What it retrospective research

A

Examination of date that has been collected in the past

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19
Q

What biases are Systematic and meta anylsis subject to

A

Inclusion/ exclusion criteria

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20
Q

What is an example of a quantitative question

A

On a scale of 1-10 how is your pain

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21
Q

What are two types of measurement errors

A

Systematic errors: are predictable errors of measurement

Random errors: are due to chance and can effect a subjects measurement in a unpredictable way

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22
Q

What is a systematic review

A

Is a thorough, comprehensive, structured way of combining findings from several sources with an analysis of the methodological quality of the studies.,

It is an interpretation of the available medical literature

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23
Q

What is observer variation in measurement error

A

Variability of measurements based on the fatigue of the observer, variations in training

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24
Q

What intrarater reliability

A

Refers to the stability of data recorder by one individual across two or more trials

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25
Q

Do Cohort study’s develop relative risk

A

YES and Odds ratios

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26
Q

What does analytic research do

A

Analyzes associations
Investigates Relationships
TESTS hypotheses

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27
Q

What does a logistical regression do

A

Estimates the probability of an outcome associated with a dichotomous response for a single or multiple variables

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28
Q

What kind of research observe natural phenomenon

A

Observational

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29
Q

What is translational research

A

refers to the application of basic scientific findings to clinically relevant issues, and simultaneously, the generation of scientific questions based on clinical dilemmas.

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30
Q

What is a case report

A

A narrative in the professional literal that IDs a single incident and discusses pertinent factors related to the pt.

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31
Q

What is observational research

A

Phenomena are observed rather than manipulated

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32
Q

What is a paradigm

A

A set of assumptions, concepts, or values that make a framework for reality

-defines what questions are important

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33
Q

What is the formula for relative risk

A

EER
_____
CER

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34
Q

What is the fishers exact test

A

A non-parametric test, can be used with small or sparsely distributed data sets

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35
Q

What are the five study types of PICO questions

A 
Therapy
Diagnosis 
Prevention 
Etiology 
Prognosis
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36
Q

What minimizes bias

A

Empirical-ism

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37
Q

What is systems based practice

A

To asses, coordinate, and improve the silvery and effectiveness of health care and patient outcomes

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38
Q

What are two types of validity

A

Internal validity: within the confines of the study appear to be accurate and the interpretation of the results is supported

External Validity: result and interpretations of the study apply outside the studied population. Also called generalizability

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39
Q

What is social desire ability bias

A

People want to be seen in a favorable social light so they give more positive answers

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40
Q

If relative risk is less than 1

A

Negative associated, possibly protective

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41
Q

What is peer review

A

The process by which an authors peers and recognized researchers in the filled read and evaluate a paper submitted for publication

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42
Q

What are the steps to the research process

A 
ID the research question 
(Who, what, how) 
Design the study 
Implement the study 
Analyze the data 
Disseminate the findings 
Close the loop 
(Replication/ additional research)
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43
Q

What defines professionalism

A

On going profesional development

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44
Q

What increases the strength of a case control study

A

Adding multiple controls

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45
Q

What is information bias

A

Occurs when the means for obtaining information about subjects in the study are inadequate so that as a result some of the information regarding the exposure or outcomes are incorrect

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46
Q

What is recall bais

A

Is the main form of information bias in case control studies

When there is a differntional recall of exposure between cases and controls

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47
Q

What is the measurement of outcomes triad

A
  • Structure: Assessed through organization standards
  • Process: Quality assurance programs
  • Outcomes: Morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and readmissions
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48
Q

What is qualitative research

A

Naturalist, humanistic or idealistic approach to research

Explore a social or human problem

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49
Q

What do cross sectional studies determine

A

Prevalence NOT incidence

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50
Q

What is clinical research

A

Structures process of investigation facts and theories and exploring connections

-utilizes a variety of quantitative and qualitative measurement tools

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51
Q

What part of a study tells you if the results are valid or meaningful

A

The methods section

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52
Q

What is an example of a qualitative question

A

Tell me about your pain ?

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53
Q

What reduces measurement errors

A
  • Double blinding
  • Independent observers
  • Validating instruments
  • Providing supervised training
  • Using multiple observers and data sources
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54
Q

If Relative Risk is equal to 1

A

No association

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55
Q

What are descriptive statistics uses for

A

To characterize the shape, central tendency, and variability within a diet of data, often with the inten to describe a population

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56
Q

What is absolute risk reduction

A

The actual reduction in events in the treated group

Is the TRUE DIFFERENCE between the experiment and the control intervention

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57
Q

What is survivor bias

A

Can lead to erroneros associations between an exposure and outcome based on survivorship of the subject in a study

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58
Q

What are the strengths of a cross sectional study

A

Can asses multiple outcomes and exposures simultaneously

Lead to further studies

Can generate prevalence

Can calculate odds ratios

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59
Q

What are case control studies

A

Studies in which patients who already have a specific condition (cases)are compared with people who do not (controls)

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60
Q

What is the purpose of a case-control study

A

To determine if the frequency of an exposure or certain personal characteristics are different for those who did/ did not get the disease

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61
Q

What are two general types of errors

A

Unpredictable

And errors made in a biased, systematic way

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62
Q

how do researchers use statistics

A

To estimate population parameters

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63
Q

Clinicians must be able to use what two types of sources

A

Primary and Secondary

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64
Q

Define internal validity

A

Within the confines of the study ,

Results appear to be accurate interpretations of the investigations supported

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65
Q

What is a recall bias

A

The possible inaccuracy of recalling medical history or previous exposures

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66
Q

What does a positive LR tell you

A

(LR+)

is the reaction of the proportion of diseased people with a positive test result (sensitivity) to the proportion of non-diseased people with a positive result (1-specificity)

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67
Q

What is the scientific method

A

Defines as the systematic, empirical, and controlled critical examination fo hypothetical propositions about the associations of natural phenomena

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68
Q

What are two types of date

A

Categorical and continuous

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69
Q

What is the number needed to treat

A

Expresses the likelihood of the treatment to benefit an individual patient

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70
Q

What are confounding variables

A

Variable that correlates directly or indirectly with the dependent and independent variables

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71
Q

What does covariate mean

A

An extraneous variable that is statistically controlled in an analysis of covariance, so that the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is analysed with the effects of the extraneous factor removed

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72
Q

What is quantitative research

A

Measurement of outcomes using numerical date under standardized conditions

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73
Q

What are case series used for

A

Examine adveres events or effects
Catalog new diseases or outbreaks
Determine safety of a new treatment
Discuss potential efficacy of a new treatment

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74
Q

A LR+…..

A LR-…

A

LR+ rules in the disease

LR- rules out a disease

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75
Q

What are filtered resources

A

Evaluate how recently the summary or study was updated of revised

Examples: clinical practice guidelines
Cochran Database of systematic Reviews

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76
Q

What kind of research is a cross sectional study

A

Observational

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77
Q

What is the dependent variable

A

AKA the outcome variable

Response of effect that is presumed to vary depending on the independent variable.,

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78
Q

What was the purpose of the Impact factor/ score

A

Was to support budgetary decisions of libraries, not to serve as a measure of scientific worth of individual studies

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79
Q

What is categorical data

A

Nominal data- classifications

Ordinal Data- ranked or sequenced data

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80
Q

What is longitudinal research

A

Follows a cohort of subjects over time, repeated measurements at prescribed intervals

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81
Q

What are measurements

A

Defined as the process of assigning numeral to variables to represent quantities of characteristics according to certain rules

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82
Q

What is scientific research

A

The process of investigation facts and theories in a scientific way to examine relationships among clínical phenomena to generat evidence for decision making

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83
Q

What are the strengths of a meta analyses

A

Generate great statistical power
Confirmatory data analysis
And ability to extrapolate the general population

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84
Q

What is inferential statistics

A

Involve a decision making process allowing estimation of population characteristics from sample data

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85
Q

What type of square test would you use if the date was in paired samples

A

McNemar test for matched pairs

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86
Q

What is the Alternative hypothesis

A

H_a or H_1

The statement that establishes a relationship between variables being assessed

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87
Q

What does the chi-square for equality of proportion test

A

Computed the same way as the CI square test for independence, but instead tests the hypothesis that the distribution of some variable in the same in all populations

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88
Q

What is exploratory research

A

Cohort studies
Case Control Studies

-used to examine phenomena of interés and how it relates to other factors

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89
Q

What is outcomes research

A

Wusses of intervention in clinical practice

Encompasses outcomes: Morbidity, mortality, disease development, and disease readmissions

90
Q

Is evidence alone enough to make a clinical decision

A

NO

91
Q

What is the main form of information bias in case control studies

A

RECALL BIAS

92
Q

What are limitations on systematic reviews

A

Very time and labor consuming

May not be easy to combine studies

93
Q

What is the most general and least precise measure of central tendency

A

The Mode

94
Q

What does relative risk measure

A

The magnitude of an association between an exposed and non exposed group

95
Q

What does a Odds ration tell you

A

It measures the strength of association between an exposure and a diseases

96
Q

What is relative risk

A

Basic risk statements express the likelihood that a particular event will occur within a population

IDs what in our environment can lead to beneficial or adverse medical outcomes

97
Q

What are variables

A

Characteristics of interest that assume different values for different subjects

Like age, gender, disease status

Must be clearly defined

98
Q

What is a regression analysis

A

A method of predicting change in the dependent variable by changing one or more independent variable

Y=mx+b

99
Q

What is the range of a LR-

A

0.0 to 1.0, null value 1.0

The smaller the better
Desirable 0.2 or less

100
Q

What is the highest form of evidence

A 
Systematic Reviews 
Then Critically Appraised Topics 
ThenCritically Appraised Individual Articles 
Then RCT 
Then COHORTS 
Then Case Studies 
Lastly expert opinion
101
Q

What do case reports and series inherently lack

A

Sufficient methodological vigor

-may be circumstantial evidence

102
Q

What are the 5 types of Clinical questions

A
  • therapy
  • harm
  • diff. Diagnosis
  • diagnosis
  • prognosis
103
Q

What is the measurement error

A

The difference between the true value and the observed value

104
Q

What does the chi square test of goodness of fit test?

A

In used to test the hypothesis that the distribution of a categorical variable within a population followed a specific patter of proportion

105
Q

A RCT is what type of Resouce

A

Unfiltered

106
Q

What is a sampling error

A

The tendency for sample values to differ from population values

107
Q

What does “control” mean in the scientific method

A

Allows the researcher to understand how one phenomenon relates to another, controlling factors are not directly related to the variables in question.

108
Q

What are the limitations of Meta Analyses

A

Difficult and time consuming to indemnity appropriate studies

Not all studies provide adequate data

Requires advanced techniques

Heterogeneity

Subject to many biases

109
Q

What are the limitations of case- control studies

A 
Only produce a single outcome 
High risk for bias 
High risk for confounding variables 
CANT determine prevalence 
CANT determine incidence 
CANT calculate relative risk
110
Q

What does the chi square of independence test

A

Tests the null hypothesis that the variables are independent of eachother, that there is no relationship between two variables

111
Q

What is a funding bias

A

Characterizing as association owing to the absence or withdrawal of financial or other types of support

People are more motivated if you pay them

112
Q

What is a relative risk reduction

A

The percentage difference in outcome between control and experimental groups

**makes insignificant findings seems significant **

113
Q

What is qualitative research

A

More concerned with a deep understanding of a phenomenon through narrative description

114
Q

A hospital guideline is what type of resource

A

Filtered

115
Q

What is Postive predictive value

A

Estimates the likelihood that a pt who tests positive actually has the disease

116
Q

What is a likelihood ration

A

Summarizes the same type of info a sensitivity and specificity, but can be used to calculate the probability of disease in a LOW PREVALENCE SETTING
-provides a indication of the tests discriminatory power

117
Q

What is selection bias

A

Inappropriate selection of study participants that may lead to an erroneous association between an exposure and and outcome

118
Q

What is the difference of cross sectional vs longitudinal studies

A

Cross sectional looks at a specific point in time.

Longitudinal you repeatedly collect information from the same sample over an extended period of time

119
Q

What is a non-inferiority trial

A

Done to show that the new treatment is an s good or better than the standard

120
Q

What is frequency distribution

A

A table of ranch ordered scores that show the number of times each value occurs

121
Q

Which type of error ( I or II) is worse

A

Type I is generally a worse error than type II

122
Q

What are the four components of a clinical question

A

P.I.C.O.

123
Q

Phase II trials

A

Explores efficacy by measuring relevant outcomes

124
Q

What are the four main areas of methodological concern for RCTs

A

Enrollment- how was the population chosen

Allocation- Randomized and how’?

Follow up- length of patient following

ANALYSIS- how was data collected

125
Q

Mesures of population characteristics are called…

A

Parameters

126
Q

What is the manifest level

A

Basic level

A descriptive account of the date

127
Q

What is a publication bias

A

Tendency of researcher and editors to treat postive results from negative or inconclusive results, often with a preference of positive findings

128
Q

What is the first step to minimize error

A

The power analysis is the first step in reducing errors

129
Q

What is Hawthorne effect

A

People act different when they know they are being watched

130
Q

What is surveillance bias

A

Occurs when outcome ascertainment is better in a monitored population than in the general population

131
Q

What is “Validity of Data”

A

Degree to which a measurement represents a true value

132
Q

What is the “noise” that gets in the way of finding the true value

A

Measurement error

133
Q

What are phase III trial s

A

Compared the new treatment with standard care ,

Large group of PTs

134
Q

What are the PA Competencies

A

Patient Care
Professionalism
Systems- Based Practice

135
Q

What are types of systematic error

A

Predictable errors or errors made by biases

Investigator or Interviewer Biases

Subject Biases

  • Social Desirability: subjects respond with what they think is the right answer
  • Hawthorne Effect : people may act different when they know they are being watched.
136
Q

What does it mean to be “systematic”

A

To have a sequence that starts with the identification of a problem, then follows an organized collection and analysis of data and leads to interpretation of the findings

137
Q

What are unfiltered sources

A

AKA primary sources

It’s up to the reader to determine quality and validity of the source

138
Q

What is prospective research

A

Variables are measured through direct recording in the present tense

139
Q

What kind of research is active intervention

A

Experimental

140
Q

What is a superiority trail

A

Compared one treatment to another directly

141
Q

What does “reliability” mean

A

Degree to which the measurements are reproducible

142
Q

What is continuous data

A

Interval data: intervals along the scale are equal to one another

Ratios: characterized by the presence of absolute zero on the scale
(no negative values)

143
Q

What are Boolean logic primary operators

A

Combining search terms with and, not, or

144
Q

What is the simplest measure of variability

A

The range

145
Q

What is a confounding variable

A

An extraneous variable that is related to the independent and dependent variable, but not the casual pathway.

146
Q

What is basic research

A

Done in a lab to obtain empirical data

Used to develop, refine, or test a theory

147
Q

What is the latent level

A

Higher level

A more interpretative analysis that is concerned with the response as well as what may have been inferred or implied

148
Q

What are the limitations of cross sectional studies

A

No time reference
Only useful for common conditions
CANNOT calculate incidence

149
Q

Can case-control studies determine relative risk

A

NO, they can make odds ratio that can be a close indicator of relative risk

150
Q

What are the strengths of Cohort studies

A

Can identify temporal relationships between exposure and disease

Can help confirm cause and effect and magnitude of effect

Can measure incidence
Can calcule relative rise

151
Q

What is the 68-95-99 rule

A

The standard deviation
That 68% of all scores fall within 1 stand. Div of the mean
And 95 % of all scores fall within 2
Stan. Div of the mean
And 99.7% of all scores fall within 3 standard divs of the mean

152
Q

What is the most coming confounding fact

A

The selection factor

  • Theory based
  • Stats based
153
Q

What does descriptive research emcompass

A

Observes associations
Shows patterns
Generates hypotheses
Provides clues to disease etiology

154
Q

What does an Odds ration greater than 1 indicate

Less than 1 indicate

A

> 1: increased occurrence
<1 decrease occurrence
(protective measure)

155
Q

What is applied research

A

Directed toward solving immediate practical problems with functional application

156
Q

What is a scoping review

A

A broad less structured approach that offers assessment of emerging evidence

157
Q

What are background resources

A

Used to learn about a new topic or refresh knowledge

Usually in textbooks, medscape, up to date

158
Q

What is the control bias “matching “

A

Selection of controls so they are similar to the cases.

159
Q

What is the range of a LR+

A

1.0 to infinity, null value 1.0

The bigger the better
Greater than 5 is most desirable

160
Q

What is a cohort

A

A group of people who share a common characteristic or experience and all remain in the group for a period of time

161
Q

What is the strongest observational design

A

COHORT STUDY

162
Q

What is a Type I error

A

Finding an effect that isn’t real

Rejecting the Null hypothesis when the association isn’t real

Like convicting an innocent man

163
Q

What is a intention to treat analysis

A

Data is analyzed according to original random assignment, regardless of the treatment subjects actually receive

Helps reduce bias if there are dropouts in the study

164
Q

What is the hierarchy of data

A

Ratio- best
Interval
Ordinal
Nominal- worst

165
Q

What are the limitations of cohort studies

A 
Expensive and time consuming 
Inefficient for rare diseases 
Lose participants to follow ups 
Confounding variables 
Recall biases
166
Q

how is a quasistudy different from a RCT

A

In non randomized

167
Q

What is descriptive research

A

Attempts to describe a group of individuals on a set of variables to document their characteristics

  • patterns of growth
  • Change over time
  • Normative studies
168
Q

What are the strengths of Systematic Reviews

A

Exhaustive
Less costly than a new study
Less time required than conduction a study
Results can be generalized
More reliable and accurate than studies on their own

Considered Evidence Bases medicine

169
Q

What are the limitations of a Non-randomized control study

A

Characteristics are not balanced at baseline

May have confounding variables

170
Q

What are three types of variables

A

Independent
Dependent
And confounding variables

171
Q

If the exposure is related to disease then the OR will be

A

Greater than 1

172
Q

What two things are used to generate practice guidelines

A

Systematic review and meta-analyses

173
Q

What is the “n”

Distribution

A

The total number of scores in the distribution is give the symbol “n”

174
Q

NNT for very effective treatments are usually in the range of …

A

2-4

175
Q

What’s are the potential biases in Cohort studies

A

Selection Bias
Information Bias
Observer Bias

176
Q

What is a equivalence trial

A

Done to show the new drug in no more or less effective that the standard

177
Q

What is instrument variation in measurement errors

A

That not all instruments are perfectly accurate

Like different BP cuffs

178
Q

What is a lost to follow up bias

A

Occurs when subject leaves a study different based on exposure bias

179
Q

What is epidemiology

A

The study of distribution and determinants of health related states or events in specific populations, and the application of the study to control health problems

180
Q

What is an epidemiological bias

A

An incorrect assessment of the association between exposure and an effect in the target population

Anything which erroneously influences conclusions about a study group

181
Q

What is the independent variable

A

The variable that is presumed to cause a dependent variable,

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher

182
Q

Describe the multi step process of epidemiology

A
  • Determine an association between exposure and outcome
  • Is the association causal ?
  • Derive appropriate inferences about a possible causal relationship from patterns found
183
Q

What are the strengths of Case- Control Studies

A

Good for studying rare outcomes
Simple and Fast
Inexpensive
Can Calculate odd rations

184
Q

What three things combine to make evidence based practice

A

Best available research
Patient values and preferences
Clinical expertise

185
Q

LR=

A

Like hood of a particulare result in someone WITH the disease
_____________________________
Like hood of the same result in someone WITHOUT the disease

186
Q

What is a control event rate (CER) %

A

A measure of how often a particular even occurs within the scientific control group of an experiment

187
Q

What does it mean to be empirical

A

To document objective data through direct observation

188
Q

Odds ratios in case control studies are a good approximation of RR when…

A

The cases studies are representative of all people with the disease

When the controls are representative of all people with the disease

When the disease is common

189
Q

If relative risk is greater than 1

A

Positive association, possibly casual

190
Q

What are phase IV trails

A

Post marketing

Looks at long term use

191
Q

In a blinded study what mayst planned crossover have…

A

A washout period

192
Q

What are the objectives of Epidemiology

A

To reduce morbidity and mortality
To determine the extent of disease in communities
The study the natural history of prognosis of a disease
Provide a foundation for developing policy related to environmental problems

193
Q

What are some examples of descriptive studies

A

Care reports and Case Studies

194
Q

What is secondary literature

A

Databases and Point of Care resources

195
Q

What is outcome management

A

Interdisciplinary process aimed at determining best practices

196
Q

A descriptive index computed from the sample data is called a…

A

Statistic

197
Q

What are the progression of steps in clinical trials

A 
Preclinical phase 
(Basic research done in labs with animals)

Phase I, II, III, then IV trials

198
Q

Define external validity

A

Ability to apply results obtained from a study population to a broader population

Aka generalizability

199
Q

What is an effectiveness trial

A

Attempts to learn if the drug, procedure works under real world circumstances

200
Q

What is the dependent variable

A

A response variable that is assumed to depend on or be caused by another (independent) variable.

201
Q

What is primary literature

A

Original study

202
Q

If the exposure is protecting of the disease then the OR will be

A

Less than 1

203
Q

What are the strengths of RCT

A 
Randomization 
High internal validity 
Can make inferences 
Can estimate risk directly 
**GOLD STANDARD**
204
Q

What is experimental research

A

Researcher manipulates and controls one or more variables and observes the resultant variation of other variables

205
Q

What are the limitations of RCT

A 
Low external validity 
Expensive 
Time consuming 
Resource intensive 
Long term follow ups 
Compliance 
Possible ethical questions
206
Q

What are phase I trails

A

Looks at treatment safety in small groups

207
Q

In unplanned crossover of blinded study … what is the cause, and beat does it lean towards?

A

Intention to treat

Leans toward the null

208
Q

What is the Chi-square test

A

One of the most common ways to compare two or more variables

209
Q

What do scatter-plots do

A

Evaluate the strength of linear relationship or associations between variables

210
Q

What is negative predictive power

A

Estimates the probability that a person who tests negative is actually disease free

211
Q

If the exposure does not effect the disease then the OR will be

A

~1

212
Q

What is practice-based learning and improvement

A

A systematic methodology
Locate, appraise, and integrate evidence from scientific studies
Apply knowledge from study designs and statistical methods, and to address personal biases

213
Q

What is probability

A

The likely hood that any one event will occur, given all the possible outcomes, shown as p.

214
Q

What is an independent variable

A

Something that will predict or cause the outcome

The intervention, the treatment, and the age, gender, martial status ect.

215
Q

What is the simplified process of Evidence Based practice

A 
Asses (identify need to gather info) 
Ask  (PICOTT) 
Acquire 
Appraise 
Apply
216
Q

What does a T-Test compute

A

A P value to test the null hypothesis

217
Q

What is the “distribution”

A

The total set of score for a particular variable

218
Q

WHAT INFLUENCES PATIENT CA

A

Current Scientific Literature

219
Q

What is the Experimental Event Rate (EER) %

A

A measure of how often a particular event occurs within the expire to al group of a experiment

220
Q

What is a type II error

A

Missing an effect that does exist

Retaining or failing to reject the null hypothesis when the association is real

Not convicting a guilty man

221
Q

What is the null hypothesis

A

H_0

The statement of no difference or no relationship between the variables

222
Q

What is a cohort study

A

An epidemiological investigation that follows groups with common characteristics over a specified period of time

IPAP 21-2 Freshman Semester (22 decks)

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