Practice questions Flashcards
What is the team effectiveness scorecard?
This model evaluates team performance on three dimensions:
Production Output
Did the team meet performance standards?
Was the output timely, high-quality, and goal-aligned?
Member Satisfaction
Are team members personally and professionally fulfilled?
Is there a positive team climate and emotional engagement?
Capacity for Continued Cooperation
Has the team functioned in a way that builds trust and future collaboration?
Are working relationships preserved or strengthened?
This model helps us move beyond just task completion to assess a team’s sustainability and interpersonal health
What are three major threats to team performance?
Groupthink
Groupthink occurs when team members prioritize harmony and consensus over critical evaluation. It leads to poor decision-making because dissenting opinions are suppressed and alternative viewpoints are not explored.
Social Loafing (or Free Riding)
This happens when individuals exert less effort in a group setting than they would on their own, assuming others will pick up the slack. It reduces overall team productivity and can create resentment among members.
Escalation of Commitment
Teams may continue investing in a failing course of action even in the face of negative feedback. This irrational persistence often stems from sunk cost fallacy, a desire to appear consistent, or group pressure to stay committed.
What are some interventions that can help improve team effectiveness?
Several interventions can be used to improve team effectiveness by enhancing communication, trust, and task clarity. These include:
Effective Team Meetings
Structuring meetings with clear agendas, equal participation, and open discussion reduces the likelihood of groupthink and encourages better decision-making.
After-Action Reviews (AARs)
Teams review what went well, what didn’t, and what could be improved after completing a task. This helps develop collective learning and accountability.
Process Checks
Periodic reflection during a project to assess team dynamics, decision quality, and task progress. It creates space to adjust strategies midstream.
Addressing Free Riding
Interventions such as peer accountability, clearly defined roles, and open conversations about contributions can help reduce social loafing.
Role Clarification Exercises
Ensuring everyone understands their responsibilities helps reduce role conflict and overlap, improving both efficiency and satisfaction.
🔍 Critical Thinking Add-On:
These interventions not only solve problems but also target underlying assumptions (e.g., “people know their roles”), biases (like overconfidence in group decisions), and rival causes of underperformance (like unclear goals vs. team dysfunction).
What are the five characteristics of high-performing teams?
High-performing teams consistently deliver results while maintaining strong interpersonal relationships. Their key characteristics include:
Complementary Skills
Team members bring a diverse but complementary set of skills (technical, problem-solving, interpersonal), enhancing the team’s capacity to address different aspects of a task.
Small Size
Effective teams typically consist of 5 to 8 members. Smaller teams promote better communication, accountability, and engagement.
Shared Purpose
Members are unified by a common goal. Whether outcome- or activity-based, a shared purpose keeps the team aligned and motivated.
Mutual Accountability
Each member holds themselves and others accountable for results. This increases commitment and reduces the risk of free riding.
Productive Team Norms
These are the informal rules and expectations that guide team behavior. When norms encourage openness, inclusion, and constructive feedback, performance improves.
🔍** Critical Thinking Add-On:**
When evaluating a team using these traits:
Ask what assumptions are being made (e.g., “Everyone values the same goal”).
Check for rival causes of underperformance — is the issue with skills, leadership, or norms?
Use evidence evaluation: Are claims about the team’s effectiveness supported by observable outcomes?
What are 5 different types of power? (Definitions, Examples & How to Build Them)
1.** Reward Power**
Definition: The ability to provide desirable outcomes or rewards.
Example: A manager who controls promotions or raises.
How to Build It: Gain access to valued resources (e.g., praise, perks, bonuses), and use them fairly to motivate performance.
🔹 2. Coercive Power
Definition: The ability to punish or withhold rewards to enforce compliance.
Example: A supervisor who can issue warnings or reduce hours.
How to Build It: Establish authority within formal systems and reinforce consequences — use sparingly to avoid resistance.
🔹 3. Legitimate Power
Definition: Power based on a formal position or perceived right to influence.
Example: A team leader or executive whose title carries authority.
How to Build It: Earn promotions, establish credibility, and be clear about your role and responsibilities.
🔹 4. Expert Power
Definition: Power based on knowledge, skills, or expertise.
Example: A tech specialist who is the go-to person for troubleshooting.
How to Build It: Continuously develop your skills, share expertise, and provide evidence-based advice.
🔹 5. Referent Power
Definition: Power that comes from being liked, admired, or respected.
Example: A charismatic peer who inspires others even without formal authority.
How to Build It: Build trust, lead by example, develop emotional intelligence, and strengthen interpersonal relationships.
🔍 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Evaluate claims about someone’s influence: What type of power are they using?
Question assumptions like “Only managers have power” — referent and expert power often reside with peers.
Consider rival causes of influence: Is it based on real authority, or just popularity?
What are the 11 types of influence tactics? Definitions, Examples, and Effectiveness
🔹 1. Rational Persuasion
Definition: Using facts, logic, and evidence to persuade.
Example: “Data shows this method increases productivity by 30%.”
Effectiveness: Very effective, especially with managers or in technical settings. Best when trust and logic matter.
🔹 2. Inspirational Appeals
Definition: Appealing to values, ideals, or emotions.
Example: “This initiative will help us become industry leaders and make a real difference.”
Effectiveness: Highly effective, especially for influencing peers or followers; boosts commitment.
🔹 3. Consultation
Definition: Involving others in decision-making to increase buy-in.
Example: “How would you improve this process?”
Effectiveness: Very effective, creates ownership and builds relationships.
🔹** 4. Ingratiation**
Definition: Using flattery or friendliness before making a request.
Example: “You’re really great at organizing—could you help me with this?”
Effectiveness: Moderately effective, but risks backfiring if seen as insincere.
🔹 5. Personal Appeals
Definition: Asking for a favor based on friendship or loyalty.
Example: “Can you do this for me as a personal favor?”
Effectiveness: Sometimes effective, especially in strong relationships, but can create pressure.
🔹 6. Exchange
Definition: Offering something in return for compliance.
Example: “If you help me with this project, I’ll support your proposal next week.”
Effectiveness: Moderately effective, depends on perceived fairness and value of the exchange.
🔹 7. Coalition Tactics
Definition: Gaining support of others to persuade the target.
Example: “Everyone on the team agrees this is the right direction.”
Effectiveness: Less effective unless used subtly. Can be seen as ganging up.
🔹 8. Pressure
Definition: Using demands, threats, or repeated requests.
Example: “I need this done now, or there will be consequences.”
Effectiveness: Least effective long term. May produce compliance, but harms trust and relationships.
🔹 9. Legitimating Tactics
Definition: Referencing rules, policies, or one’s formal authority.
Example: “Company policy says we must do this.”
Effectiveness: Low to moderate. Works when authority is accepted, but can provoke resistance.
🔹 10. Apprising
Definition: Explaining how a proposal benefits the person directly.
Example: “This change will make your job easier and improve your performance ratings.”
Effectiveness: Effective, especially when the benefit is clear and personal.
🔹 11. Collaboration
Definition: Offering help or resources to make a task easier.
Example: “Let me help you set this up so we can both succeed.”
Effectiveness: Highly effective, fosters goodwill and mutual effort.
What are the Social Influence Weapons? Definitions and Examples
These are six powerful principles of influence identified by psychologist Robert Cialdini. They explain why people are persuaded — even without formal authority — and appear in both business and daily interactions.
🔹 1. Friendship / Liking
Definition: People are more likely to comply with someone they know, like, or find attractive.
Example: A salesperson builds rapport by complimenting you before pitching a product.
Crash Course Tip: Strong personal relationships = more persuasive power.
🔹 2. Commitment and Consistency
Definition: People tend to behave in ways that align with their past actions, especially publicly stated ones.
Example: If someone agrees to a small task (e.g., signing a petition), they’re more likely to later support a bigger related action.
Crash Course Tip: Ask for small commitments first to build momentum.
🔹 3. Scarcity
Definition: People are more influenced when they believe something is rare or limited in availability.
Example: “Only 3 spots left on this project team!”
Crash Course Tip: Frame opportunities as exclusive or time-sensitive.
🔹 4. Reciprocity
Definition: People feel obligated to return favors or kindness.
Example: You buy from someone who gave you a free sample or helped you with a task.
Crash Course Tip: Give first (help, info, favors) to build influence.
🔹 5. Social Proof
Definition: People look to others to determine how to act, especially in uncertain situations.
Example: A new employee adopts behaviors they see everyone else using in meetings.
Crash Course Tip: Show that others already support or do what you’re asking.
🔹 6. Appeals to Authority
Definition: People comply with those they perceive as experts or figures of authority.
Example: “This policy is endorsed by the VP of Operations.”
Crash Course Tip: Reference credible sources, experts, or your own qualifications when appropriate.
How do you influence up?
Influencing up means persuading someone who has more authority than you — like your manager, supervisor, or a senior executive. It requires tact, credibility, and alignment with their goals.
🔹 1. Understand Your Manager’s Style and Goals
Learn how they like to communicate (email? quick meetings?).
Figure out what their key priorities are — and link your ideas to those goals.
📘 Example: If your manager is focused on cost-saving, frame your proposal as “a way to reduce spending.”
🔹2. Build Trust and Reciprocity
Create a foundation of mutual respect.
Offer help before you ask for favors — this triggers reciprocity (one of Cialdini’s influence weapons).
📘 Example: “I noticed you’re short on admin support — I’m happy to help consolidate those reports.”
🔹 3. Make a Good First Impression
Be professional, clear, and prepared.
People form lasting impressions quickly — especially those in leadership roles who have limited time.
🔹 4. Be Authentic and Show Appreciation
Don’t overdo it with flattery (that’s ingratiation gone wrong).
Be honest, and acknowledge their contributions when appropriate.
🔹5. Use the Right Influence Tactics
Most effective “upward” tactics include:
Rational persuasion
Apprising (explain how your idea benefits them)
Consultation (involve them in shaping your idea)
Avoid using pressure or coalition tactics — these tend to backfire with people in power
What is leadership? (Definition and Example)
🔹 Definition (from your crash course):
Leadership is the ability to influence people to set aside their individual concerns and support a larger organizational or group objective.
It’s not just about giving orders — it’s about motivating and aligning people toward shared goals.
🔹 Example:
A project lead motivates a cross-functional team to adopt a new workflow. Even though the change requires extra effort and isn’t popular at first, the leader effectively communicates the long-term benefits and helps the team adapt — resulting in higher efficiency and satisfaction over time.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Leadership effectiveness is judged not just by outcomes, but by whether the leader maintains team satisfaction, cooperation, and ethical behavior.
Ask: Is the leader using legitimate power, or relying on referent, expert, or inspirational influence?
Be aware of assumptions like “a leader must have a title” — leadership often emerges without formal authority
What is the difference between managers and leaders?
🔹 Managers
Focus on control, organization, and consistency
Rely on formal authority (legitimate power)
Concerned with short-term planning, budgeting, staffing, and maintaining order
Often ask: “How can we do things right?”
📘 Example: A manager schedules shifts, monitors performance, and ensures policies are followed.
🔹 Leaders
Focus on inspiring, guiding, and creating vision
Rely on influence (expert, referent, inspirational appeals) rather than position
Concerned with long-term goals, change, and development
Often ask: “Why are we doing this — and how can we do it better?”
📘 Example: A leader motivates a team to adopt a new, innovative approach, even if it involves some risk or pushback.
What are the Great Man Theory, Leader Effectiveness, and Leader Emergence?
🔹 1. Great Man Theory
Definition: An early theory of leadership that suggests leaders are born, not made. It assumes that certain individuals have innate qualities that make them natural leaders.
Example: Believing someone like Martin Luther King Jr. was destined to be a leader because of charisma, courage, and vision.
Crash Course Context: This theory has been largely discredited — it ignores context, development, and learned skills.
🔹 2. Leader Emergence
Definition: The process through which someone naturally becomes seen as a leader by others, often without a formal title or authority.
Example: In a group project, one student starts organizing meetings, assigning tasks, and offering guidance — and the group begins treating them as the leader.
Crash Course Note: Emergence is influenced by traits like confidence, communication skill, and initiative.
🔹 3. Leader Effectiveness
Definition: Refers to how successful a leader is at achieving goals, motivating others, and maintaining positive team dynamics.
Example: A formally appointed team leader who delivers results while keeping the team satisfied and cooperative is considered effective.
Crash Course Tip: Someone can emerge as a leader but still be ineffective — effectiveness requires skill, adaptability, and trust.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Don’t confuse leadership emergence with leadership success — being seen as a leader doesn’t mean someone is effective.
Avoid assumptions from Great Man Theory like “leaders are born” — evidence shows that leadership skills can be developed.
Evaluate evidence of leadership: Is someone being followed because of charisma (emergence), or because they deliver (effectiveness)?
What is Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)?
🔹 Definition:
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory focuses on the quality of the relationship between a leader and each individual follower.
Rather than treating all subordinates the same, leaders develop unique relationships with each team member — some high-quality, some low-quality.
🔹 Example:
A manager gives Sarah regular feedback, trusts her with key projects, and includes her in decision-making (high LMX).
Meanwhile, the same manager rarely engages with Alex, gives vague instructions, and limits responsibility (low LMX).
🔹 What Can Build High LMX?
According to your course materials:
Trust – Consistently reliable interactions
Respect – Mutual recognition of value and capability
Open Communication – Two-way, transparent communication
Support – Providing help, feedback, and encouragement
Extra-role behaviors – Going above and beyond encourages reciprocity
🔹 Outcomes of High LMX Relationships:
(For both leaders and employees)
✅ Positive outcomes for employees:
Higher job satisfaction
Greater commitment to the organization
Better performance
More access to resources and opportunities
More likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs)
✅ Positive outcomes for leaders/teams:
Greater trust and cohesion
Improved team effectiveness
Reduced conflict
More engaged and proactive employees
🔍 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Evaluate claims about team morale: Is the issue individual performance or poor LMX quality?
Challenge assumptions that equal treatment = fair treatment — equity is not always sameness.
Look at evidence of high LMX (frequent feedback, autonomy) vs. low LMX (silence, distance, micromanagement).
What is transactional leadership? What is management by exception and contingent rewards? How do you provide contingent rewards or punishment?
🔹 What is Transactional Leadership?
Definition:
Transactional leadership is based on a system of exchanges between leaders and followers. The leader sets clear goals and expectations, and followers are rewarded or punished based on whether they meet them.
It’s focused on performance, compliance, and efficiency, rather than vision or change.
🔹 Two Key Transactional Behaviors:
1.** Contingent Reward**
Definition: The leader provides rewards only when the employee meets agreed-upon performance standards.
Example: “If you hit your monthly sales target, you’ll receive a bonus.”
How to provide it effectively:
Be clear about expectations and outcomes
Ensure the reward is desirable and timely
Be consistent — fairness is key to credibility
-
Management by Exception (MBE)
There are two types:
a) Passive MBE
Definition: The leader only intervenes when problems arise.
Example: A manager who ignores a process until something goes wrong, then steps in to correct it.
Effectiveness: Often demotivating — seen as reactive, not proactive.
b) Active MBE
Definition: The leader monitors performance actively and corrects errors before they escalate.
Example: A manager reviews reports regularly and flags small issues early.
Effectiveness: More effective than passive MBE — shows accountability and oversight.
🔹 Contingent Punishment
Definition: Clear consequences for not meeting expectations.
Example: “If the report is submitted late, it will result in a formal warning.”
How to use it effectively:
Set expectations early
Make consequences proportionate and known in advance
Avoid emotional responses — stay professional and objective
What is transformational leadership? What are the six dimensions of transformational leadership behavior? (With definitions & examples)
🔹** What is Transformational Leadership?**
Definition:
Transformational leadership is a style where leaders inspire, motivate, and develop followers to achieve more than they originally intended — often beyond expectations. It’s about creating a shared vision, encouraging innovation, and fostering personal growth.
This approach works especially well in times of change, uncertainty, or when building long-term commitment is key.
🔹** The 6 Dimensions of Transformational Leadership**
(Some models group these into 4 core categories, but your crash course includes 6 — here’s the full list with examples.)
-
Vision
Definition: Articulating a clear and compelling long-term direction.
Example: “Imagine a team where we’re not just meeting targets — we’re setting the standard for the entire department.”
-
Inspirational Communication
Definition: Using language that uplifts, energizes, and aligns people with purpose.
Example: “Every step you take today is building the future of this company.”
-
Supportive Leadership
Definition: Showing genuine concern for followers’ well-being and development.
Example: “How can I help you succeed this week? Let’s set time aside to discuss your goals.”
-
Intellectual Stimulation
Definition: Encouraging innovation, creativity, and challenging the status quo.
Example: “There’s no one right answer. What would you do differently if you had no limits?”
-
Personal Recognition
Definition: Giving praise and acknowledgment for individual contributions.
Example: “You handled that client call perfectly — I could see your preparation paid off.”
-
Charisma (or Idealized Influence)
Definition: Demonstrating passion, confidence, and moral conviction that earns deep respect and emulation.
Example: A leader who lives the values they promote, such as fairness, excellence, or service.
What is servant leadership? (Definition and Example)
🔹 Definition:
Servant leadership is a leadership style that prioritizes the needs, growth, and well-being of followers before the leader’s own interests.
The servant leader’s primary goal is to serve, empower, and support others — enabling them to develop and perform to their fullest potential.
The focus is on developing people, building community, and leading through humility.
🔹 Example:
A team leader consistently puts their team’s development first — offering mentoring, removing roadblocks, and giving credit to others instead of seeking the spotlight. When the team struggles, the leader asks, “What do you need from me?” instead of assigning blame.
🔹 Key Characteristics of Servant Leaders (from your crash course):
Listening
Empathy
Healing
Awareness
Foresight
Stewardship
Commitment to the growth of people
Building community
These leaders are often trusted, respected, and able to build strong, value-driven teams.
What is Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Situational Leadership? (Definition and Example)
🔹 Definition:
Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Situational Leadership model presents a continuum of leadership behaviors that range from boss-centered (directive) to subordinate-centered (participative).
The key idea is that effective leaders adapt their style based on:
The situation
The followers’ experience and maturity
The level of trust and skill in the group
It’s about choosing the right balance between control and delegation depending on the circumstances.
🔹 The Four Main Styles on the Continuum:
Tell – Leader makes the decision and announces it
Sell – Leader makes the decision but explains the reasoning to gain buy-in
Consult – Leader asks for input but still makes the final call
Join – Leader and team make the decision together (shared power)
🔹 Example:
In a crisis, a leader might use the Tell style to act quickly.
With an experienced, high-trust team, the leader may Join in collaborative decision-making.
What is a critical thinking skill?
🔹** Definition:**
Critical thinking skills are the tools and mental habits that allow you to analyze information objectively, evaluate evidence and arguments, and reach well-reasoned, logical conclusions.
In the context of COMM 227, critical thinking means going beyond surface-level reactions and asking:
“Is this claim valid? What is the evidence? Are there hidden assumptions or alternative explanations?”
🔹 **Examples of Critical Thinking Skills from Your Course:
Identifying Claims
Distinguishing main conclusions from supporting ideas.
Evaluating Evidence
Using the SCRAAP test (Sufficiency, Clarity, Representative, Authority, Accuracy, Precision) to assess quality.
Detecting Assumptions
Spotting value assumptions (“What should be?”) and reality assumptions (“What is?”).
Exploring Rival Causes
Asking: What other explanations might exist?
Recognizing Fallacies or Weak Reasoning
Avoiding overgeneralization, emotional appeals, and false authority.
Structuring a Persuasive Argument
Making claims backed by sound reasoning and well-chosen evidence.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On (Meta!):
Critical thinking itself involves questioning assumptions — even your own.
Ask: “What’s being left out?” or “What lens is being applied?”
It’s a skill, not a trait — it can be learned, practiced, and improved.
What is a claim? (Definition + Context)
🔹** Definition:**
A claim is the main idea or conclusion that the author or speaker wants you to believe, accept, or act upon.
It’s the core message or point being argued — everything else in the argument is designed to support it.
Think of the claim as the “thesis” or “takeaway statement” that the argument is built around.
🔹 Example:
“Hybrid work models increase productivity.”
This is a contestable claim — it requires evidence and reasoning to support it.
🔹 Where do claims appear?
Sometimes clearly stated at the beginning or end
Sometimes implied within reasoning or evidence
Clue words: “Therefore,” “In conclusion,” “Clearly,” “Ultimately,” “The data shows that…”
🔹 Types of Claims:
Uncontested: Widely accepted as fact (e.g., “Canada was founded in 1867”)
Contestable: Requires support and evaluation (e.g., “Canada’s education system is the best in the world”)
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Before you can analyze an argument, you must first identify the claim — everything hinges on that.
Ask: “What is the author trying to convince me of?”
Once the claim is clear, you can evaluate its supporting evidence, assumptions, and logical structure.
What are the 6 qualities of good evidence? (Definitions & Examples)
These qualities are captured by the acronym SCRAAP — each letter stands for a criterion used to evaluate how strong or weak a piece of evidence is.
🔹** 1. Sufficiency**
Definition: Is there enough evidence to support the claim?
Example: A single anecdote isn’t enough to prove a broad trend.
Tip: Strong claims require more than one piece of support.
🔹 2. Clarity of Expression
Definition: Is the evidence clearly presented and easy to understand?
Example: “Many people support this” is vague; “72% of surveyed employees support this” is clearer.
Tip: Lack of clarity weakens the persuasive power of the evidence.
🔹 3. Representative
Definition: Does the evidence accurately reflect the full situation or population?
Example: Interviewing 5 students at one school doesn’t represent all students in Canada.
Tip: Watch out for cherry-picked or biased samples.
🔹 4. Authority
Definition: Is the source credible, knowledgeable, and trustworthy?
Example: A doctor commenting on medical treatment has authority; a celebrity does not.
Tip: Avoid false appeals to authority (using non-experts).
🔹** 5. Accuracy**
Definition: Is the information factually correct and verified?
Example: Citing official statistics vs. quoting a blog without checking the facts.
Tip: Look for independently confirmed data.
🔹 6. Precision
Definition: Is the evidence specific, detailed, and measurable?
Example: “Sales increased by 23%” is better than “Sales improved a lot.”
Tip: Watch out for vague phrases like “many,” “usually,” or “a large number.”
🧠** Critical Thinking Add-On:**
Always use SCRAAP when analyzing arguments — weak evidence can make even a strong claim fall apart.
Ask yourself: If I remove this evidence, does the argument still hold?
Spot rival causes: Is the evidence being used to obscure other possible explanations?
What is bounded rationality? (Definition and Example)
🔹 Definition:
Bounded rationality is the idea that people are limited in their ability to make fully rational decisions because of constraints like limited time, incomplete information, and cognitive limitations.
Rather than making the “best” possible decision, individuals often settle for a “good enough” or satisfactory option — a process called satisficing.
In short: we make decisions that are “smart enough,” not perfect.
🔹 Example:
A manager hiring under time pressure interviews only 3 candidates and hires the one who meets most (but not all) requirements — rather than delaying the process to find the absolute best fit out of 100 potential applicants.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Bounded rationality challenges the assumption that people always act logically or maximize outcomes.
Ask: “Is the decision limited by lack of time, bias, or incomplete data?”
Link to biases (like availability or anchoring) — bounded rationality helps explain why those occur.
What is satisficing? (Definition and Example)
🔹** Definition:**
Satisficing is a decision-making strategy where individuals or teams choose the first option that meets their minimum criteria rather than searching for the optimal or perfect solution.
It’s a product of bounded rationality — we satisfice because we have limited time, information, or mental energy.
The goal is to find a solution that is “good enough”, not necessarily the best.
🔹 Example:
An employee needs to buy a new printer for their department. Instead of researching every model and comparing features, they choose the first reliable brand that fits the budget and has good-enough reviews — even if it’s not the best on the market.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Satisficing can be practical and efficient, but it can also lead to missed opportunities or bias if used too quickly.
Ask: Are we settling because of real constraints — or out of habit or poor planning?
In team decisions, satisficing might look like consensus, but it could be a form of groupthink if dissent isn’t voiced.
What is PADIL? (Definition and Example)
🔹 Definition:
PADIL is a five-step structured framework used to solve problems effectively in organizational and team settings. It stands for:
P – Problem
A – Alternatives
D – Decide
I – Implement
L – Learn
It encourages decision-makers to be systematic and critical rather than jumping to quick fixes or relying on intuition alone.
🔹 Example (Team Conflict Scenario):
Let’s say your team is consistently missing deadlines.
Problem: Define the core issue — “Our deadlines are being missed due to unclear task ownership.”
Alternatives: Brainstorm solutions — assign project leads, increase check-ins, improve task tracking.
Decide: Choose the most feasible — assign project leads with weekly reporting.
Implement: Roll out the change in your next project cycle.
Learn: After the project, assess — did deadlines improve? What should we tweak next time?
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
PADIL prevents satisficing and escalation of commitment by forcing you to pause and evaluate.
Helps overcome biases like overconfidence or availability by demanding comparison of alternatives.
You can apply SCRAAP in the “Alternatives” stage to assess the quality of supporting evidence for each option.
What are decision-making biases/errors of judgment? (Definitions and Examples)
🔹 Definition:
Decision-making biases, or errors of judgment, are systematic thinking errors that lead us to make flawed or irrational decisions.
They arise because of bounded rationality, emotional reactions, and mental shortcuts (called heuristics).
🔹** Common Biases (Crash Course Lists 8):**
1. Availability Bias
Definition: Overestimating the importance of information that comes easily to mind.
Example: After hearing about a company breach, a manager assumes data hacks are extremely common and overreacts with unnecessary policies.
-
Representative Bias
Definition: Assuming something fits a category based on similarity to a stereotype, not logic.
Example: Believing a quiet, bookish person must be a librarian instead of a salesperson, despite statistics.
-
Anchoring and Adjustment Bias
Definition: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information (the anchor) when making decisions.
Example: A candidate negotiates a salary based on their last job, even though the role is very different.
-
Confirmation Bias
Definition: Seeking out or interpreting information that supports your existing beliefs.
Example: Only reading articles that support your opinion about remote work, ignoring counterarguments.
-
Overconfidence Bias
Definition: Having excessive belief in the accuracy of your decisions or forecasts.
Example: A team leader ignores feedback because they believe their plan is flawless.
-
Escalation of Commitment
Definition: Continuing a failing course of action to justify past investments.
Example: Keeping a failing marketing campaign alive because of how much time and money was already spent.
-
Fundamental Attribution Error
Definition: Attributing others’ failures to personal traits rather than external factors.
Example: Assuming an employee is lazy for missing deadlines, when the real issue is unclear task assignments.
-
Self-Serving Bias
Definition: Taking credit for successes but blaming others or external factors for failures.
Example: A manager credits themselves for a successful quarter but blames the market for any losses.
How can we overcome decision-making biases/errors of judgment?
🔹 1. Use Structured Decision Frameworks (like PADIL)
PADIL forces you to slow down and go step-by-step instead of rushing to conclusions.
It ensures you define the real problem, explore alternatives, and reflect on what you’ve learned.
📘 Example: Instead of choosing a solution based on gut feeling, you walk through PADIL and realize your preferred choice isn’t the best fit.
🔹2. Seek Diverse Perspectives
Groupthink and confirmation bias can be reduced when multiple voices are involved, especially from people with different experiences or views.
📘 Example: Ask others to challenge your reasoning — assign a “devil’s advocate” to test assumptions.
🔹3. Use Evidence-Based Tools (Like SCRAAP)
Evaluate the quality of supporting evidence: Is it sufficient, accurate, representative?
This prevents overreliance on vivid anecdotes or flawed data (e.g., availability bias).
🔹 4. Reflect on Your Own Thinking
Build awareness of common biases like overconfidence, escalation of commitment, or anchoring.
Ask: Am I reacting emotionally? Am I justifying a past mistake instead of reevaluating it objectively?
📘 Tip: Pause and write down your reasoning — this exposes patterns and assumptions.
🔹 5. Use Checklists or Decision Audits
Create a checklist of common biases to screen for during group decisions.
Revisit the problem after a break — fresh perspective reduces impulse-driven errors.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Overcoming bias isn’t about “being smart” — it’s about being self-aware and systematic.
Avoid the assumption: “I’m objective” — this is actually overconfidence bias in disguise.
Use tools like PADIL, SCRAAP, and rival causes to actively challenge your reasoning.
What are the positive and negative effects of conflict?
🔹 Positive Effects of Conflict (When Managed Well):
Encourages Critical Thinking
Conflict can challenge assumptions and push team members to re-evaluate their views.
📘 Example: A disagreement in a meeting prompts deeper analysis, leading to a better solution.
Promotes Innovation and Creativity
Differing viewpoints often spark new ideas and better decisions.
📘 Example: A team clash over design preferences results in a creative hybrid solution.
Strengthens Team Relationships
When resolved constructively, conflict can increase trust, communication, and respect among members.
📘 Example: Two coworkers resolve tension through dialogue and collaborate more effectively afterward.
Clarifies Roles and Expectations
Conflict often brings hidden tensions to light, allowing for role clarification and more effective operations.
🔹 Negative Effects of Conflict (When Mismanaged):
Decreased Productivity
Ongoing conflict can distract team members, reduce focus, and stall progress.
📘 Example: A feud between departments delays a shared project.
Damaged Relationships
Personal conflict can erode trust and respect, leading to avoidance or resentment.
📘 Example: Team members stop collaborating after repeated unresolved disputes.
Increased Stress and Turnover
Persistent, unresolved conflict increases emotional strain and can lead to burnout or quitting.
Group Polarization or Dysfunction
If conflict escalates or turns hostile, it may result in group splits, defensive communication, or toxic work culture.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Don’t assume conflict = bad. Ask: Is this conflict task-focused or personal?
Evaluate the rival causes of poor team performance — is it conflict, or how it’s handled?
Use conflict as a diagnostic tool: What issues are being revealed?
What are two different types of conflict? Do they both lead to positive and negative effects?
🔹 1. Task Conflict
Definition: Disagreement over ideas, goals, strategies, or the work itself.
Example: Team members debate which marketing strategy to use for a new product.
Potential Effects:
✅ Positive: Encourages critical thinking, innovation, and better decision-making — when managed respectfully
❌ Negative: If not resolved, it can escalate into personal conflict or create frustration
🔹 2. Relationship Conflict
Definition: Conflict that stems from personal issues, tension, or dislike between individuals — not the task.
Example: A team member feels disrespected by another’s tone in meetings.
Potential Effects:
❌ Mostly Negative: Distracts from work, harms trust, reduces satisfaction and team cohesion
🔄 Rarely Positive: Only if addressed openly and leads to deeper understanding (this is less common)
What are the sources of conflict?
Conflict doesn’t just “happen” — it usually stems from one or more predictable causes. Understanding the sources of conflict helps you prevent and manage it more effectively.
🔹 1. Incompatible Goals
Definition: When team members or departments are pursuing conflicting objectives.
Example: Sales wants faster delivery, while production wants more time to ensure quality.
🔹 2.** Differentiation**
Definition: Differences in values, priorities, expertise, or assumptions across individuals or groups.
Example: Marketing and IT have different perspectives on a software rollout — one focuses on customer perception, the other on functionality.
🔹 3. Interdependence
Definition: When two or more parties rely on each other to complete tasks — delays or mistakes affect both.
Example: A team member can’t start their report until someone else finishes the data entry.
🔹 4.** Limited Resources**
Definition: Conflict arises when there’s not enough time, money, equipment, or support to go around.
Example: Two departments compete for a limited training budget.
🔹 5. Ambiguity or Role Confusion
Definition: When responsibilities, expectations, or procedures are unclear.
Example: Two employees believe they’re in charge of the same project task — tension follows.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Always ask: What’s really causing this conflict? Don’t assume it’s personal — it may be structural.
Use rival causes thinking: Is the issue interpersonal, or are unclear systems, goals, or resources to blame?
What are the five conflict-handling styles? Which are more or less appropriate depending on the situation?
🔹 1. Integrating (Collaborating)
Definition: High concern for self and others — seeks a win–win solution through open dialogue and problem solving.
Example: Two coworkers brainstorm a creative solution that meets both of their needs.
Best when: Issues are complex and both parties’ concerns are important.
✅ Most appropriate when trust is high, and time allows for joint problem solving.
🔹 2. Dominating (Competing)
Definition: High concern for self, low concern for others — one party seeks to win at the other’s expense.
Example: A manager imposes a decision without consultation due to urgency.
Best when: Quick, decisive action is needed (e.g., emergencies).
❌ Less appropriate in ongoing relationships — can damage trust.
🔹 3. Avoiding
Definition: Low concern for self and others — ignores the conflict or delays addressing it.
Example: An employee sees tension brewing but chooses not to bring it up.
Best when: The issue is trivial or emotions need time to cool.
❌ Less appropriate when the conflict affects performance or relationships.
🔹 4. Obliging (Accommodating)
Definition: Low concern for self, high concern for others — one party yields to maintain harmony.
Example: Letting your colleague lead the presentation to avoid disagreement, even if you had a different idea.
Best when: Preserving the relationship is more important than the issue itself.
❌ Less appropriate if it leads to resentment or unmet needs.
🔹 5.** Compromising**
Definition: Moderate concern for both self and others — parties each give up something to reach a middle ground.
Example: Two departments agree to share limited resources equally.
Best when: A quick, mutually acceptable solution is needed, and both parties have equal power.
⚠️ Not ideal for complex or long-term issues where deeper collaboration is possible.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Don’t assume one style is always best — effectiveness is situational.
Use evidence (e.g., nature of the conflict, relationship dynamics) to guide your approach.
Evaluate your own default style — are you avoiding, dominating, or truly engaging?
How do we determine whether to negotiate or not?
🔹 You should consider negotiating if:
There is interdependence
You and the other party need something from each other to reach your goals.
📘 Example: A project manager and a department head must agree on how to share resources.
There is a conflict of interest
Your goals and the other party’s goals** do not automatically align**, and compromise or trade-offs are required.
📘 Example: Two teams want access to the same budget — negotiation may help reach a fair allocation.
Both parties are willing to engage
Negotiation only works if both sides are** open to dialogue and finding a solution.**
There is the potential for agreement
If there’s a zone of possible agreement (ZOPA) — i.e., overlap between what you want and what they might accept — negotiation can succeed.
Maintaining or improving the relationship is important
Negotiation can build trust and enhance long-term collaboration, especially if handled constructively.
🔹** You should avoid negotiating if:**
The issue is trivial
Don’t waste time negotiating over minor details that don’t significantly impact outcomes.
There is no flexibility or authority to compromise
If the outcome is dictated by strict rules or policies (e.g., legal compliance), negotiation may not be an option.
The relationship is too damaged or emotions are too high
In highly charged situations, it may be better to use a mediator or wait until tensions cool.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Avoid assuming that negotiation = weakness. It’s often a strategic move to reach better solutions.
Use rival causes thinking: Is this conflict due to differing goals — or poor communication?
Evaluate whether negotiation can create value or just prolong an unsolvable issue.
What are the stages of the negotiation process? (From the crash course)
The negotiation process consists of six structured stages, each designed to increase the chance of a productive, fair agreement:
🔹 1. Prepare
Goal: Do your homework — understand your goals, priorities, and the other party’s needs.
Tasks: Identify your BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement), define what success looks like, and clarify your priorities.
📘 Example: Research the other team’s objectives before a budget meeting.
🔹 2. Understand Needs
Goal: Open the conversation by identifying what matters most to both parties.
Tasks: Build trust, ask questions, clarify concerns and goals.
📘 Example: “What’s your top concern with this project timeline?”
🔹 3.** List and Discuss Options**
Goal: Generate possible solutions that satisfy both sides.
Tasks: Explore multiple options, expand the pie, don’t lock into one solution too early.
📘 Example: “Would an extended deadline work if we shifted resources?”
🔹 4. Use Process Tactics
Goal: Guide the negotiation using appropriate influence techniques.
Tasks: Frame proposals, respond to objections, make concessions strategically.
📘 Example: “If we agree on this today, I can guarantee delivery by next Friday.”
🔹 5. End Negotiation
Goal: Close the deal clearly and confidently.
Tasks: Summarize agreements, document terms, and ensure mutual understanding.
📘 Example: “Let’s confirm we’re both committing to this timeline and budget.”
🔹 6. Evaluate
Goal: Reflect on the outcome and process to learn for future negotiations.
Tasks: Ask what went well, what didn’t, and how you can improve next time.
📘 Example: Debriefing with your team after the negotiation to improve for the next one.
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Use SCRAAP to evaluate information presented during negotiation.
Check your assumptions: Are you listening — or just pushing your position?
Consider rival causes when the other party resists — is it about the issue, or about timing, power, or emotion?
What is mediation and when should it be used? What is the mediation process?
🔹 What is Mediation?
Definition:
Mediation is a neutral, third-party conflict resolution process where the mediator helps disputing parties communicate, negotiate, and reach their own agreement.
The mediator does not impose a solution — they facilitate one.
The goal is to** restore understanding, rebuild trust, and help parties develop mutually acceptable solutions.**
🔹 When Should Mediation Be Used?
Use mediation when:
Communication between parties has broken down
Emotions are running high, and objectivity is lost
There is no power imbalance (both parties can speak freely)
Parties are willing to resolve the conflict, but need help doing so
A continued relationship is important (e.g., coworkers, teams)
❌ Mediation is not appropriate when:
One party is unwilling to cooperate
There’s abuse, harassment, or threats
The issue requires legal intervention or formal investigation
🔹 The Mediation Process (4 Steps):
Stabilize the Setting
Create a neutral, safe environment
Set ground rules (respect, no interruptions, confidentiality)
Help Parties Communicate
Encourage active listening, empathy, and clear sharing of perspectives
Help parties understand each other’s positions and feelings
Help Parties Negotiate
Explore shared interests and generate mutually beneficial solutions
Stay neutral — guide the process, don’t take sides
Clarify the Agreement
Ensure both parties understand and accept the resolution
Put it in writing if appropriate and define next steps or follow-ups
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Mediation works best when you challenge the assumption that “someone has to win.” It focuses on shared interests.
Ask: Is the real conflict about miscommunication, identity, or interests?
Evaluate outcomes, not just emotions — has trust been restored?
What are underlying assumptions? (Definition and Example)
🔹 Definition:
Underlying assumptions are unstated beliefs or ideas that a person** takes for granted as true** — they form the foundation of their reasoning or argument, even if they never say them out loud.
They can be:
Reality assumptions → About how the world works
Value assumptions → About what is good, right, or desirable
If the assumption is wrong or goes unexamined, the argument may fall apart — even if the evidence seems valid.
🔹 Example:
Claim: “Remote workers are less productive.”
Underlying Assumption (Reality): That productivity can only be measured by in-office visibility.
Underlying Assumption (Value): That being physically present is more valuable than output quality.
🔹 Why They Matter:
Assumptions often hide biases or flawed logic
They must be identified and questioned to evaluate the strength of an argument
Ignoring them can lead to poor decisions or conflict based on misunderstanding
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Ask: “What is this person assuming is true but not stating?”
Use this to challenge both others’ arguments and your own thinking
Combine with the SCRAAP test — even strong evidence can fall apart if the assumption behind the claim is false
What are two different types of assumptions? How do we challenge these assumptions?
🔹 The Two Types of Assumptions:
1. Reality Assumptions
Definition: Beliefs about how the world works — assumed to be true even if they aren’t stated.
Example: “People are more productive in the office than at home.”
Why it matters: If the reality assumption is wrong, the argument built on it may be flawed.
-
Value Assumptions
Definition: Beliefs about what is good, right, or desirable — these are moral or ethical beliefs that guide decisions.
Example: “Profit is more important than employee satisfaction.”
Why it matters: Value assumptions shape priorities — if the audience doesn’t share the same values, the argument may not persuade them.
🔹 How to Challenge Assumptions (From Crash Course):
Identify the Assumption
Ask: What is being taken for granted?
Look for ideas that are not explicitly stated but must be true for the argument to make sense.
Ask Clarifying Questions
“What evidence supports this belief?”
“Is this always true, or just in some situations?”
Consider Alternative Perspectives
What would someone with a different background, role, or value system say?
Could this belief be based on outdated or incomplete information?
Use Rival Causes Thinking
Are there other explanations for the situation that don’t rely on this assumption?
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Don’t just attack claims — dig beneath them to test the foundation.
Most biases and faulty arguments come from unchecked assumptions, not lack of evidence.
Asking “What is being assumed?” is one of the most powerful tools in critical thinking.
What is a causal claim? What is a causal explanation? What is a rival cause?
🔹 1. Causal Claim
Definition:
A causal claim asserts that one event or factor causes another — it links cause and effect.
📘 Example: “Working from home leads to lower productivity.”
This claim suggests that working remotely causes the drop in productivity.
Why it matters:
Causal claims require strong, specific evidence — not just correlation. A flawed causal claim can lead to poor decisions and false conclusions.
🔹 2. Causal Explanation
Definition:
A causal explanation provides the reasoning or justification behind a causal claim — it explains how or why the cause leads to the effect.
📘 Example: “Remote workers are less productive because they face more distractions at home.”
This is a causal explanation for the claim above — it shows the mechanism linking cause and effect.
🔹 3.** Rival Cause**
Definition:
A rival cause is an alternative explanation for the observed outcome — something other than the stated cause that could explain the effect.
📘 Example: Maybe productivity dropped not because of remote work, but because of poor communication tools or lack of training during the shift to remote work.
Why it matters:
Considering rival causes is a core critical thinking skill — it helps prevent faulty conclusions based on incomplete or biased reasoning.
🧠** Critical Thinking Add-On:**
Always ask: Is this the only possible cause?
Use rival cause thinking to challenge causal claims and strengthen your argument.
Look for hidden assumptions: Is the speaker assuming causation without proof?
What is a potential objection and a rebuttal?
🔹** Potential Objection**
Definition:
A potential objection is a counterargument or criticism that someone might raise against your claim or reasoning. It reflects what a skeptical audience might think.
📘 Example: If your claim is, “Remote work increases productivity,”
a potential objection might be: “But remote workers are often distracted at home.”
🔹 Rebuttal
Definition:
A rebuttal is your response to that objection — it defends your claim by addressing and refuting the counterargument.
📘 Rebuttal to the above objection: “While some remote workers face distractions, studies show that flexibility actually improves focus and output for most employees.”
🔹 Why They Matter:
Anticipating objections shows that your argument is balanced, thoughtful, and strong
A good rebuttal increases your credibility and persuasiveness
It also helps refine your reasoning by forcing you to confront weaknesses
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Ask: What would someone who disagrees say? And how would I respond?
Use rival causes, assumption testing, or evidence evaluation (SCRAAP) to construct a strong rebuttal
This step turns good arguments into great ones
What is rhetoric? (Definition and Example)
🔹** Definition:**
Rhetoric is the art of persuasive communication — using language strategically to influence others’ thoughts, emotions, or actions.
It’s not just what you say, but how you say it to convince or persuade your audience.
Rhetoric involves shaping:
Claims (what you’re arguing)
Evidence (how you support your argument)
Structure & Tone (how you present it)
Appeals (to logic, emotion, and credibility)
🔹 Example:
Instead of saying:
“We should invest in this training program.”
You might use rhetorical techniques like:
“Imagine a team where employees feel empowered, confident, and skilled — this training makes that vision a reality.”
That’s rhetoric — appealing to emotion and future potential, not just facts.
🔹** Rhetorical Appeals (Classical Theory):**
Logos – Logical appeal (facts, statistics, reasoning)
Pathos – Emotional appeal (stories, values, feelings)
Ethos – Ethical or credibility appeal (trust, expertise, character)
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Ask: Is this argument persuasive because it’s sound — or because it’s emotionally compelling?
Evaluate rhetorical strength with SCRAAP and test for underlying assumptions
Learn to use rhetoric ethically: persuade, don’t manipulate
What are the steps to write a persuasive essay?
Here are the 7 key steps for writing a clear, critical, and persuasive essay:
🔹 1. Clarify the Claim
Define exactly what you’re arguing — make your claim specific and contestable.
📘 Example: “Transformational leadership improves team performance.”
🔹 2.** Provide Context**
Briefly explain the background of the issue or topic so the reader understands its relevance.
📘 Example: “As organizations face increased pressure to retain talent, leadership style has become more important than ever.”
🔹 3. Outline the Main Reason(s)
Identify 1–3 main arguments that support your claim.
Each reason should be distinct and strong enough to stand alone.
🔹 4. Support with Evidence
Back each reason with examples, research, or data — use SCRAAP to make sure your evidence is high quality.
📘 Example: “Studies show teams led by transformational leaders report 21% higher engagement (Source: OB textbook).”
🔹 5. Identify and Address a Potential Objection
Think of what someone might argue against your claim, and respond with a rebuttal.
📘 Objection: “Transformational leadership takes too long to develop.”
📘 Rebuttal: “While it takes time, the long-term benefits in retention and performance outweigh the investment.”
🔹 6. Reaffirm the Claim
Restate your argument confidently and clearly, now that you’ve supported it.
Avoid repeating the same wording as your intro — show how your argument has grown.
🔹 7. End with a Broader Insight
Close with a final reflection or implication — what’s the bigger takeaway?
📘 Example: “As the workplace continues to evolve, investing in transformational leadership may be the most strategic decision a company can make.”
🧠 Critical Thinking Add-On:
Each step builds on claims, evidence, assumption checking, and rival cause awareness
Avoid emotional overreach — use rhetoric ethically, and always be logical, clear, and structured
