Midterm #2 SOCI 121 Flashcards
Study chapters 11-16
A status received through individual effort or merits (e.g., occupation, educational level, moral character, etc.)
achieved status
(in a biological usage) the connection between human variations and the historical-geographical origins of an individual or group’s ancestors
ancestry
A status received by virtue of being born into a category or group (e.g., hereditary position, gender, race, etc.)
ascribed status
The process by which a minority individual or group takes on the characteristics of the dominant culture
assimilation
Black, Indigenous, and People of Colour
BIPOC
The forcible subjugation of territory and people by military action
conquest
Prejudiced action against a group of people
discrimination
Can be used interchangeably with the term majority
dominant
A group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups
dominant group
A situation in which everyone in a society has an equal chance to pursue economic or social rewards
equality of opportunity
The idea that all cultures and all cultural practices have equal value
ethical relativism
A shared cultural heritage — the distinctive practices, beliefs and way of life of a group
ethnicity
Evaluating another culture according to the standards of one’s own culture
ethnocentrism
Refers to marriage outside of the group (community, tribe, ethnicity, etc.)
exogamy
When a dominant group forces a subordinate group to leave a certain area or the country
expulsion
The idea that humans can be categorized into five racial categories: African, European, Asian, Oceanic, and Native American
five race theory
The deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group
genocide
Rights conferred on individuals by virtue of their membership in a group
group-specific rights
The process by which different racial and ethnic groups combine to create new or emergent cultural forms and practices
hybridity
a shared self-perception or self-ascription of an individual or community as belonging to a distinct group based on ethnic, racial, religious, geographical or other characteristics
identity
When a societal system has developed with an embedded disenfranchisement of a group
institutional racism
The process of uneven regional development by which a dominant group establishes control over existing populations within a country by maintaining segregation of ethnic and racial groups
internal colonialism
A theory that suggests that the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes on social status compound one another
intersection theory
Any group of people who are singled out from others for differential and unequal treatment
minority group
The blending of different racialized groups through sexual relations, procreation, marriage, or cohabitation
miscegenation
The stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment
model minority
The recognition of cultural and racial diversity and of the equality of different cultures
multiculturalism
the practice of projecting exotic characteristics onto “Asia,” “the East” or “the Orient” that are said to be the opposite of Western characteristics
orientalism
Biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people
prejudice
The practice of projecting “savagery” or premodern characteristics onto Indigenous and racialized peoples around the globe
primitivism
The selection of individuals for greater surveillance, policing, or treatment on the basis of racialized characteristics
racial profiling
When real estate agents direct prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighbourhoods based on their race
racial steering
The social process by which certain social groups are marked for unequal treatment based on perceived physiological differences
racialization
A set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others
racism
The process by which meaning is produced and circulated in a society through the use of language, signs and images to stand in for, or re-present, things
representation
The physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions
segregation
A society historically based on colonization through foreign settlement and displacement of Indigenous inhabitants
settler society
Oversimplified ideas about groups of people
stereotypes
a mark or attribute regarded as deeply discrediting
stigma
A systematic method used to resolve conflicts, or potential conflicts, between groups that arise based on perceived differences
strategy for the management of diversity
Groups whose identity is defined by cultural subordination
subaltern groups
A group of people who have less power than the dominant group
subordinate group
Overlapping and mutually reinforcing structures of racial discrimination systematically embedded within and between organizations and institutions
systemic racism
The benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group of racialized “whites.”
White privilege
The doctrine that non-White groups are inferior and that racial discrimination, segregation, and domination is therefore justified
White supremacy
Persons, other than Indigenous persons, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-White in colour
visible minority
The experience of a division between the directly lived, bodily world of women’s lives and the dominant, masculine, abstract, institutional world to which they must adapt
bifurcated consciousness
Deep and structures of language that take the form of paired terms and carry opposed or opposite meanings
binary opposition
A term that refers to individuals whose gender identity matches the gender and sex they were assigned at birth
cisgender
A social condition in which heteronormativity is enforced by formal and informal measures that encourage heterosexuality and penalize sexual variation
compulsory heterosexuality
The way people perform tasks based on assigned gender scripts and gendered feedback from significant others
doing gender
An ideological framework that states that there are only two possible sexes, male and female, and two possible genders, masculine and feminine
dominant gender schema
Women are doubly exploited in capitalist society when they work outside the home for wages and within the home as unpaid domestic labour
double exploitation of women
A concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women, but allows it for men
double standard
The dominant styles of femininity, which express women’s subordination to men within a particular culture at a particular time
emphasized femininity
A term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviours that are considered male or female
gender
Harmful acts directed at an individual based on their gender
gender-based violence
A psychiatric classification describing persons experiencing a strong and persistent incongruity between their anatomy (their sex) and the gender with which they identify
gender dysphoria
An individual’s sense of being either masculine or feminine
gender identity
Society’s concept of how men and women should behave
gender role
Sexual orientation which takes into account both sexes and genders of people
gendered sexuality
An invisible barrier that prevents women from achieving positions of leadership
glass ceiling
The dominant male ideal within a particular culture at a particular time
hegemonic masculinity
The belief and practice that heterosexuality is the only normal sexual orientation
heteronormativity
An extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals
homophobia
Individuals with a mixture of male and female sexual organs or physical characteristics
intersex
Emotional, sexual and physical violence by one intimate partner against another
intimate partner violence
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, two spirited and other minority sexualities
LGBTQ2+
A style of masculinity characterized as virile, aggressive, intransigent, and hyper-masculine
machismo
A type of femininity, often stigmatized, defined by non-compliance with male domination
pariah femininity
The principle that individuals are guided by instinctual drives for immediate gratification
pleasure principle
The idea of a society in which sex and gender distinctions no longer matter
postgenderism
A scholarly discipline that questions fixed (normative) definitions of gender and sexuality
queer theory
The principle that individuals must regulate instinctual drives for gratification according to the reality of the restrictions, rules and moral codes of the social order
reality principle
A term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females
sex
The prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another
sexism
A person’s capacity for sexual feelings and the orientation of their emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)
sexuality
The process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
socialization
Oversimplified ideas about groups of people
stereotypes
A term that refers to individuals who identify with the behaviours and characteristics that are the opposite of their biological sex
transgender
Transgender individuals who alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy
transsex
A theory which suggests that for individuals to enjoy old age and feel satisfied, they must maintain activities and find a replacement for the statuses and associated roles they have left behind as they aged
activity theory
A theory which states that members of society are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by race, class, and gender
age stratification theory
Discrimination based on age
ageism
Individuals born between approximately 1946 and 1964
baby boomers
People 100 years old or older
centenarians
A group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait
cohort
A theory which states that the elderly make specific choices to maintain consistency in internal (personality structure, beliefs) and external structures (relationships), remaining active and involved throughout their elder years
continuity theory
The number of productive working citizens to non-productive (young, disabled, or elderly)
dependency ratio
A theory which suggests that withdrawing from society and social relationships is a natural part of growing old
disengagement theory
When a caretaker intentionally deprives an older person of care or harms the person in their charge
elder abuse
A sociological paradigm that models human interaction based on calculated social exchanges of resources governed by a norm of reciprocity
exchange theory
Deference and respect to one’s parents and ancestors in all things
filial piety
A medical specialty focusing on the elderly
geriatrics
A type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society’s oldest members
gerontocracy
A field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older
gerontology
The idea that as people age, they transcend limited views of life they held in earlier times
gerotranscendence
A psychological, emotional, and social response to the feelings of loss that accompanies death or a similar event
grief
Health care that treats terminally ill people by providing comfort during the dying process
hospice
The period from birth to death, including a sequence of predictable life events
life course
The number of years a person is expected to live
life expectancy
A theory which suggests that societies pass through a linear series of social transformations as they transform from traditional to industrial based forms of social organization
modernization theory
The voluntary use of lethal medication provided by a medical doctor to end an individual’s life
physician-assisted suicide
Biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes
primary aging
Aging that occurs due to controllable factors like exercise and diet
secondary aging
The idea that successful personal development throughout the life course and subsequent mastery of the challenges associated with everyday life are based on the components of selection, optimization, and compensation
selective optimization with compensation theory
The aging process, including biological, intellectual, emotional, social, and spiritual changes
senescence
A specialized field of gerontology that examines the social aspects of aging
social gerontology
A theory that focuses on the shared community created by the elderly when they are excluded, voluntarily or involuntarily, from participating in other groups due to age
subculture of aging theory
The systematic study of death and dying
thanatology
A type of unilateral descent that follows either the father’s or the mother’s side exclusively
ambilineal
The act of entering into marriage while still married to another person
bigamy
The tracing of kinship through both parents’ ancestral lines
bilateral descent
When a couple shares a residence but is not married
cohabitation
An intimate relationship that lasts only as long as the satisfaction it brings to both partners
confluent love
A family whose members are connected by divorce rather than marriage, for example ex in laws, or ex spouse’s new partners
divorce extended family
Social relationships are based on giving and returning valued goods or services. Individuals seek to maximize their rewards in their interactions with others
exchange theory
A household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins
extended family
Socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption, and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society
family
A sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as occurring in strict stages
family life course
A set of predictable steps and patterns that families experience over time
family life cycle
The family into which one is born
family of orientation
A family that is formed through marriage
family of procreation
A condition of constant mobility, unpredictability and change in relationships within contemporary society
fluid modernity
The social rule that an individual may not have sex with or marry someone who is a close blood relative
incest taboo
Violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship; includes unmarried, cohabiting, and same-sex couples, as well as heterosexual married couples
intimate partner violence (IPV)
A person’s traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and/or adoption)
kinship
A system of social organization based on real or putative family ties
kinship system
A legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship, who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship
marriage
Relatively egalitarian, small scale agricultural societies in which mothering is recognized as the central unifying structure
matriarchy
A type of unilateral descent that follows the mother’s side only
matrilineal descent
A system in which it is customary for a husband to live with his wife’s family
matrilocal residence
When someone is married to only one person at a time
monogamy
A cohabiting man and woman who are married and have at least one biological child under the age of 18
nuclear family
A type of love which expresses the emotions of impulsive and pervasive sexual attachment to another
passionate love
A type of unilateral descent that follows the father’s line only
patrilineal descent
A system in which it is customary for a wife to live with (or near) her husband’s family
patrilocal residence
The practice of sharing intimate relationships with more than one partner
polyamory
A form of marriage in which one woman is married to more than one man at one time
polyandry
The state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time
polygamy
A form of marriage in which one man is married to more than one woman at one time
polygyny
A non-institutionalized form of intimacy in which couples enter into a relationship that lasts only as long as the satisfaction it brings to both partners
pure relationship
A group of medical symptoms, such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage, resulting from forcefully shaking or impacting an infant’s head
shaken-baby syndrome
A large, rural, multi-generational, economically self-sufficient family, in which one of the children marries and remains in the family home while other siblings move away
stem family
A couple family in which at least one child is the biological or adopted child of only one married spouse or common-law partner and whose birth or adoption preceded the current relationship
stepfamily
Large scale, societal patterns in people’s feelings or emotional responses towards things
structure of feeling
A projection of how many new marriages are expected to fail after 30 years, based on the divorce rate by marriage duration observed in a given year
total divorce rate
The tracing of kinship through one parent only
unilateral descent
The religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world
animism
A response to religious diversity that welcomes people of different faiths into the majority culture on the condition that they leave their beliefs behind and adopt the majority’s faith as their own
assimilation
A belief in no deities
atheism
A large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that is closely integrated into the larger society
church
The combined mental contents of a society that manifests itself through a religious framework
collective consciousness
A feeling experienced by individuals when they come together to express beliefs and perform rituals together as a group
collective effervescence
A promise of a reward at a later, unspecified date
compensator
The religious belief that the Universe and life originated “from specific acts of divine creation.” For young Earth creationists, this includes a biblical literalist interpretation of the Genesis creation narrative and the rejection of the scientific theory of evolution
creationism
A small religious organization that is at great odds with the norms and values of the larger society
cult or New Religious Movement
A theory stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase individual organism’s ability to compete, survive, and reproduce
Darwinian evolutionary theory
A god or a goddess
deity
A religious organization that is closely integrated into the larger society but is not a formal part of the state
denomination
The process by which magical and superstitious understandings of the world are replaced by scientific calculation and technical control
disenchantment of the world
Suffering is explained as a consequence of the struggle between the dual powers of good and evil, gods and demons, in which evil occasionally wins out
dualist theodicy
A church that has formal ties with the state
ecclesia
A response to religious diversity which denies new religions entry into society
exclusion
A type of definition that defines a phenomenon based on a series commonly shared attributes or family resemblances — not all family members equally share these attributes or resemblances
family resemblance definition
A type of definition that defines a phenomenon by what it does or how it functions in society
functional definition
The decline in religious belief and practice of individuals
individual secularization
The accumulated effects of acts committed in former lives and their influence on fortunes and suffering in this life
karma
The birthplace of Muhammad; a city located in Hejaz, in what is now known as South Arabia; the holiest city of the Islamic religion, and is the center of Islamic faith
Mecca
A religion based on belief in a single deity
monotheism
A hatred of women
misogyny
(In sociology) a stable, predictable, and normative order
nomos
The efforts made by religious organizations to update their beliefs and practices, to reflect changes in contemporary life
organizational secularization
A sociological perspective that argues that all phenomena appear spontaneously and immediately within the experience and awareness of individual subjects before they become the basis for subjective and objective reality
phenomenology
A response to religious diversity that welcomes every religious practice regardless of how divergent its beliefs or social norms
pluralism
A religion based on belief in multiple deities
polytheism
A previously Christian society in which Christianity becomes just one among many religious beliefs
post-Christian society
The belief that the gods predetermine the fate of individuals
predestination
Everyday objects, states of being or practices that do not hold any spiritual or religious significance
profane
The duty to “work hard in one’s calling.”
Protestant ethic
A theory which states that human action is motivated by individual self-interest and that all social activities are a product of rational decision making that weighs costs against benefits
rational choice theory
A system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant
religion
Specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true
religious beliefs
A condition in which a multiplicity of religions and faiths co-exist in a given society
religious diversity
The conviction or sensation that one is connected to “the divine.”
religious experience
Persons who choose the category “none” on surveys about religious affiliation
religious nones
Behaviours or practices that are either required for or expected of the members of a particular group
religious rituals
Objects, states of being, or practices that are set apart and considered forbidden because of their connection to divine presence
sacred
A divinely grounded cultural system
sacred canopy
The Hindu ritual in which a widow sacrifices herself by burning alive on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband
sati
A small religious body that forms after a group breaks away from a larger religious group like a church or denomination
sect
The process by which religion and the sacred gradually have less validity, influence, and significance in society and the lives of individuals
secularization
The shrinking relevance of institutionalized religion for the integration and legitimation of everyday life in modern society
societal secularization
A type of definition that delineates the substantial or crucial characteristics that define what a phenomenon is and is not
substantial definition
A system of government in which ecclesiastical authorities rule on behalf of a divine authority
theocracy
An explanation for why the Gods allow suffering, misfortune, and injustice to occur
theodicy
A plant, animal, or object that serves as a symbolic, material expression of the sacred
totem
The most basic, ancient form of religion based on reverence for totemic animals or plants
totemism
An unquestionable foundation that establishes the legitimacy of a social order
ultimate legitimation
A global society in which digital platforms and their proprietary algorithms organize the social distribution of attention and information
algorithmic society
The process by which an audience receives and decodes media messages
audience reception
A quality of charismatic authority based on the perceived sincerity, “realness” or truth of their messages
authenticity
The influence of a form of communication on the organization of society
bias of communication
A set of instructions for how to assemble signifying elements into a message that communicates meaning and makes sense to an audience
code
The ability to locate oneself within a meaningful whole or mental map of the social world
cognitive mapping
The shared beliefs, morals, attitudes or mental life of a society
collective conscience
The meanings, symbols, concepts, categories, and images shared by a social collectivity
collective representations
The collection of media corporations and commercial enterprises that produce standardized cultural goods — films, radio programmes, TV, pop music, magazines, etc. — that are used to transform audiences into a mass of passive consumers
culture industry
The process whereby an audience actively interprets or deciphers the meaning of a media text or representation
decoding
The uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines
digital divide
Computer mediated communication networks
digital media
The standpoint of a media audience member who interprets a media text in terms of the dominant or preferred meanings of society
dominant‐hegemonic position
A social media environment in which a person only see beliefs or opinions that align with their own, so that their existing views are reinforced or uncritically confirmed back to them and exposure to alternative ideas is inhibited
echo chamber
The process whereby events or raw reality depicted in a representation are turned into messages that convey specific cultural meanings
encoding
A social media condition created by algorithms that personalize or filter an individual’s online experience in which users encounter only information and opinions that align with and confirm their existing beliefs
filter bubble
The watchdog role of the professional news media that monitors the government of society by exposing excesses and corruption, and holding those in power accountable
fourth estate
The condtion in which members of a society no longer share a single, unified universe of meaning and understanding
fragmentation of knowledge
The sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media — appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount
gatekeeping
Overarching narratives of that give order, meaning and direction to a society
grand narratives
A set of ideas that conceal, distort, or justify power relations in a society
ideology
The critical practice of revealing, analyzing, and challenging the underlying ideological assumptions of social discourses
ideology critique
An authority able to filter, interpret, and explain media messages to an audience
influencer
A form of social media marketing that involves product placements and endorsements from online personalities who use their social media following as a ready made and motivated market
influencer marketing
An information management system in which one component is not able to freely communicate or share information with another component
information silo
A society in which the sources of economic productivity and political power are based on new information technologies (e.g., micro-electronic computation, digital communications technologies, genetic engineering) and the generation, processing, and transformation of information
information society
The gap in information that develops through unequal access to digital technology
knowledge gap
The unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process
latent functions
A large and disperse group, lacking self-awareness and self-identity, whose members are largely unknown to one another, and who are incapable of acting together in a concerted way to achieve objectives
mass
Forms of communication like newspapers, radio, television, social media platforms, that pass from from a centralized location to the masses
mass media
All print, digital, and electronic means of communication
media
A prejudice in favour of a particular viewpoint in the selection of the events and stories that are reported and how they are covered
media bias
The outcomes of a causal relationship between media content and audience behaviour
media effects
Mechanisms like ideology, sourcing, and flak in which media messages are crafted to present and support the interests of dominant groups in society
media filters
The mediated environment of a society based on the circulation of media images, messages, news stories, and representations
mediascape
A means or channel of communication
medium
When people are too overwhelmed with media input to really care about the issue, their involvement becomes defined by awareness instead of by action about the issue at hand
narcotizing dysfunction
The standpoint of a media audience member who interprets a media text in terms of the dominant or preferred meanings of society but makes exceptions to the dominant interpretation based on specific situations or local conditions
negotiated position
The combined economic activity of communication infrastructure companies, digital and traditional media, and internet application companies
network media economy
All interactive forms of information exchange
new media
The standpoint of a media audience member who interprets a media text by rejecting the dominant or preferred meanings of society and replacing them with a set of oppositional meanings or alternative frame of reference
oppositional position
A form of constant monitoring from centralized observation posts in which the the observed is never communicated with directly
panoptic surveillance
One-sided relationships between celebrities and audiences in which the celebrity remains unaware of their impact on fans, while fans dedicate significant time and energy in getting to know the celebrity
parasocial
A website or application that enables two or more individuals or groups to interact
platform
A form of capital accumulation in which value and competitive advantage are extracted from the data of platform users
platform capitalism
A framework for understanding the role of the media as means of manufacturing consent to the rule of powerful corporate interests
propaganda model
An open democratic space for public debate and deliberation
public sphere
The use of signs and symbols to stand in for referents: experiences, events, things, ideas, and people, for example
representations
The art of using language to persuade or influence others
rhetoric
The blurring of the boundaries between reality and representation through the creation, dissemination, and consumption of models of reality
simulation
The way in which an understanding of what is real is created through human interaction and communication with others
social construction of reality
The regulation and enforcement of norms
social control
An arrangement of regular, predictable practices and behaviours on which society’s members base their daily lives and expectations
social order
The degree to which a group of people cohere or are bound together through shared consciousness, qualities or social ties
social solidarity
Forms of communication using impermanent but easily transportable materials like paper or papyrus that are suited to transmission of messages over distances
space-biased media
A reconfiguration of space through digitally mediated linkages and continuous flows of information that bypass traditional geographical, state and institutional boundaries
space of flows
Oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on rigid generalizations
stereotypes
Forms of communication using durable materials like clay tablets, carved stone or pictographs that sustain a consistent message through time
time-biased media
The degree to which the sequencing of time into a clearly demarcated succession of past, present and future is eliminated through the use of instantaneous media communication technologies
timeless time
A communication model in which the effectiveness of the message is enabled by an influential intermediary between the sender of a message and the audience
two-step flow of information
An organization structure in which a corporation owns different businesses within the same chain of production and distribution
vertical integration
The quality of having the attributes of something without sharing its real or imagined physical form
virtuality
