Midterm #1 SOCI 121 Flashcards
Chapters 1 - 10
A difference in income level between different members of the same generation
intragenerational mobility
A change in a person’s self-concept and behaviour after their actions are labelled as deviant by members of society
secondary deviance
The extension of the capitalist mode of production to the entire world
global capitalism
Any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share a sense that their identity is aligned with the group
group
Groups to which an individual compares herself or himself
reference groups
the ability to define one’s goals and act on them; used as a variable to measure inequality
agency
A personality disorder characterized by anti-social behaviour, diminished empathy, and lack of inhibitions
psychopathy
The philosophical tradition that seeks to discover the laws of the operation of the world through careful, methodical, and detailed observation
empiricism
A standard sequence of changes in a person’s moral capacity to be answerable for their actions
moral career
Gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey
field research
The absence of personal feelings in the conduct of organizational tasks
impersonality
A type of analysis that proposes that social contradiction, opposition, and struggle in society drive processes of social change and transformation
dialectics
The ability to change positions within a social stratification system
social mobility
Norms based on social requirements which are based on the moral views and principles of a group
mores
The elevated feeling experienced by individuals when they come together as a group
collective effervescence
A consumption model based on small batch production of specialized goods tailored for specific market segments or “niches.”
niche market consumption
The process by which a global dimension of social relations emerges and spreads
globalization
The value of a person’s assets
wealth
An educated guess that predicts outcomes with respect to the relationship between two or more variables
hypothesis
Evidence corroborated by direct sense experience and/or observation
empirical evidence
A symbolic system of communication
language
The expression of a role
role performance
Norms that are specified in explicit codes and enforced by government bodies
law
Collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews
self-report study
A form of colonialism focused on permanent settlement and corresponding displacement of Indigenous Peoples and societies
settler colonialism
The continued socio-economic and political dominance of external political and economic agents in former colonies
neo-colonialism
The unequal distribution of resources between countries
global stratification
A one-on-one conversation between a researcher and a subject
interview
A linkage of autonomous companies, or segments of companies, often geographically disperse, organized temporarily for specific projects or tasks and characteristic of global information societies
network enterprise
A group who shares a common social status based on their economic position or relationship to the means of production
class
The role that social environment plays in self development
nurture
Offenders serve a conditional sentence in the community, usually by performing some sort of community service
community-based sentencing
An abstract model of a recurring social phenomenon that describes the form and logical relation of components
ideal type
Max Weber’s metaphor for the modern condition of life circumscribed by the demand for maximum efficiency
iron cage
Ritualized practices by which individuals attest to the esteem they hold for others
presentation rituals
The mutual understanding of the tasks or situation at hand shared among co-participants
definition of the situation
The loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower
deindustrialization
The tendency for people to define themselves in terms of the commodities they purchase
consumerism
The communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society
collective conscience
The widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations, communicable diseases, and culture between the Eastern and Western hemispheres beginning in the 16th century
Columbian Exchange
Societies based around the cultivation of plants
horticultural societies
Pre-established patterns of behaviour that people are expected to follow in specific social situations
social script
A group function that serves achieving a task or goal efficiently and effectively
instrumental function
A thorough ethnographic description which describes observed behaviour and the layers of meaning that form the social context of the behaviour
thick description
Suicide which results from the absence of strong social bonds tying the individual to a community
egoistic suicide
A set of policies in which the state reduces its role in providing public services, regulating industry, redistributing wealth, and protecting the commons while advocating the use of free market mechanisms to regulate society
neoliberalism
A group that shares a specific identity apart from a parent culture, even as the members hold features in common with the parent culture
subculture
How a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality
Thomas theorem
A situation in which everyone in a society has a similar level of wealth, status, and power
equality of conditions
Crimes committed by high status or privileged members of society
white-collar crime
Analytical framework which conceptualizes a single world-system operating as a global division of labour, divided between multiple states, which redistributes surplus value from the periphery to the core
world systems theory
The spread of automation, computation, instantaneous communication, and digitization through the use of electronics, computers and internet
third industrial revolution
Philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them
paradigms
An individual or group who, in the service of its own interests, publicizes and problematizes “wrongdoing” and has the power to promote, influence, create or enforce rules to penalize wrongdoing
moral entrepreneur
Cultural assets in the form of knowledge, education, and taste that can be transferred intergenerationally
cultural capital
A level of material goods and comforts required to maintain a particular socio-economic lifestyle
standard of living
The system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested, convicted, or sentenced for criminal offences
corrections system
A set of policies in which the state reduces its role in providing public services, regulating industry, redistributing wealth, and protecting the commons while advocating the use of free market mechanisms to regulate society
neo-liberalism
A behaviour that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions
crime
Variable that causes change in a dependent variable
independent variable
Practices by which individuals or organizations seek to govern the behaviour of others or themselves
government
The degree of honour or prestige one has in the eyes of others
status
The income of a nation calculated based on domestic goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country
gross national income (GNI)
A practice where products are designed, manufactured, and assembled in different international locations
global assembly lines
A civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, provincial, or community level
police
Serious acts of deviance about which there is near-unanimous public agreement
consensus crimes
A research focus on the characteristics of local networks, groups, and organizations
meso-level of analysis
A situation in which everyone in a society has an equal chance to pursue economic or social rewards
equality of opportunity
The experience and attraction to the act of being together for its own sake, regardless of the content of the interaction
pure sociability
An approach to understanding society that explains social change, human ideas, and social organization in terms of underlying changes in the economic (or material) structure of society
historical materialism
A quantitative approach to textual research that selects an item of textual content that can be reliably and consistently observed and coded, and surveys the prevalence of that item in a sample of textual output
content analysis
A group defined by a distinct relationship to the means of production
social class
A perspective in which male concerns, male attitudes, and male practices are presented as “normal” or define what is significant and valued in a culture
androcentrism
The network of institutions that create and exclude inter-generational, criminalized populations on a semi-permanent basis
penal-welfare complex
Activities against the law that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them
victimless crime
When one or more of an individual’s social roles clash
role conflict
Tenets or convictions that people hold to be true
beliefs
Institutions of male power in society
patriarchy
When a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation
correlation
Groups of people bound together in communities of feeling who gather at particular times and places for specific reasons and then disband
neo-tribes
A group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of their identity
in-group
Women (or other categories of individual) who break both laws and gender (or other) norms
doubly deviant
Actions to which individuals attach subjective meanings
social action
A global countermovement based on principles of environmental sustainability, food sovereignty, labour rights, and democratic accountability that challenges the corporate model of globalization
anti-globalization movement
A form of colonialism in which the focus is on the extraction of wealth (rather than settlement)
exploitative colonialism
An organization principle where group membership and advancement are based on merit as shown through proven and documented skills
meritocracy
A characteristic trade off in late modern society between trust in expert systems to manage collective risks and threats, and the recognition of the fallibility of expert systems
risk/trust dilemma
The examination of how society is organized and coordinated from the perspective of a particular social location, group or perspective in society
standpoint theory
Stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role
role strain
A situation of uncertain norms and regulations in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness
anomie
Detailed continuous training, control, observation, correction and rehabilitation of individuals to improve their capabilities
disciplinary social control
The production of emotional qualities required as an aspect of paid labour
emotional labour
A corporation whose ownership and operations span multiple nation-states
multinational corporation
Attacks based on prejudice against a person’s or group’s race, religion, sexuality or other characteristics
hate crimes
The spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another
diffusion
A difference in income level between different generations of a family
intergenerational mobility
Ritualized practices by which people keep both a physical and social distance from status superiors
avoidance rituals
A group’s whole way of life including shared practices, values, beliefs, norms and artifacts
culture
Rules of behaviour or conduct
norms
In-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual
case study
The movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources
capital flight
A three-member group
triad
A cognitive picture or abstraction delineating the difference between gender categories that people utilize to guide their behavior and information processing
gender schema
The processes of increasing integration and interconnection which incorporate people across the world into a single world society
globalization
The way people perform tasks based on assigned gender scripts and gendered feedback from significant others
doing gender
Producing or inhibiting feelings according to the social expectations of different situations
emotion management
An image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes
face
Strategies of social control that redesign spaces where crimes or deviance could occur to minimize the risk of crimes occurring there
situational crime control
An institution in which members are required to live in isolation from the rest of society
total institution
A scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research
literature review
A model of capital accumulation based on mass production, cheap standardized products, high wages, and mass consumption
Fordism
A form of domination in which a state or state sponsored group exercises direct control over the territory and inhabitants of another society
colonialism
A term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage
fourth world
An increase in one’s social class
upward mobility
A form of slavery in which one person owns another
chattel slavery
Productive property, including the things like tools, technologies, resources, land, workplaces, etc. used to produce the goods and services needed for survival
means of production
A technique of conciliatory social control which focuses on establishing a direct, face-to-face connection between the offender and the victim
restorative justice conferencing
A group that rejects and opposes society’s widely accepted cultural patterns
counterculture
When a person’s beliefs and ideology are in conflict with their best interests
false consciousness
A form of identity formation defined by the drive to find one’s “self” and to express one’s unique individuality, even in the face of resistance
expressive individualism
An approach to teaching and learning based on fostering the agency of marginalized communities and empowering learners to emancipate themselves from oppressive social structures
critical pedagogy
Internalized social norms that define what people should do when they occupy a social role in society
social expectation
The buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals
debt accumulation
The process by which old behaviours are removed and new behaviours are learned in their place
resocialization
An invisible barrier that prevents women from achieving positions of leadership
glass ceiling
A way of life or a way of conducting oneself in life
ethos
Organization that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital
coercive organization
Sectors of the global labour market who are of no direct use to capitalism and obliged to sustain themselves precariously in informal sectors of the economy
surplus humanity
The way a human society acts upon its environment and its resources in order to process and distribute them to meet their needs
mode of production
Variable changed by the impact of another variable
dependent variable
The role of the leader in determining how an organization decides what its goals are and how it will attain them
leadership function
The system by which the world is divided up into separate and indivisible sovereign territories or states
sovereign state system
A status received through individual effort or merits (e.g., occupation, educational level, moral character, etc.)
achieved status
A time when children are only capable of imitation and have no ability to imagine how others see things
preparatory stage
A theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society
control theory
The dispersion of a people from their original homeland
diaspora
Knowledge that draws general conclusions from limited observations
overgeneralization
The replacement of magical thinking by technological rationality and calculation
disenchantment of the world
The influence of genetic makeup on self development
nature
The transformation in the transportation and trade of goods brought about by the use of container ships
containerization
A ritual that marks a life cycle transition from a previous status to a new status
rite of passage
The singling out of a particular racial group for extra policing
racial profiling
An organization in which participants live a controlled life focused on resocialization
total institution
The deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture
cultural imperialism
A term from the Cold War era that refers to poor, non-industrialized countries
third world
The process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identity and are given new ones
degradation ceremony
Pre-established patterns of behaviour that people are expected to follow in specific social situations
social scripts
A leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks
instrumental leader
Punishments for violating norms
negative sanctions
A historical materialist model of society in which the economic structure forms the base of a society, which shapes its culture and other social institutions, or superstructure
base and superstructure
Theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control
social disorganization theory
Relating to manual work or workers
blue-collar
Data collections from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviours and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire
surveys
The individual’s perception of how think think they appear to others
looking-glass self
Information based on systematic interpretations of meaning
qualitative data
Statuses obtained by attributions outside of an individual’s control, such as sex or race
ascribed status
Small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population
sample
The critical analysis of the way gender differences in society structure social inequality
feminism
The behaviour expected of a person who occupies a particular position
social role
In-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and providing an expanding middle class marketplace
semi-peripheral nations
The specific drives, needs, purposes, or interests of individuals that motivate them to interact with others
contents
The practice of assessing beliefs or practices within a culture by its own standards
cultural relativism
A social condition or setting of social and cultural diversity in which a multiplicity of ideas, traditions and customs intermingle
cosmopolitanism
The group of close, personal contacts with whom one confides on personal matters and with whom one chooses to spend free time
core discussion group
A state of poverty subjectively present when one’s actual income does not meet one’s expectations
subjective poverty
The replacement of magical thinking by science, technological rationality, and calculation
disenchantment of the world
Relating to “mental,” administrative or services work, particularly in an office or other professional environment
white-collar
The emergence of group identities that provide individuals with a means of distinguishing themselves from others in the context of global diversity and cosmopolitanism
new tribalism
the initial stage of capitalist accumulation in which people are separated from a territory and its resources, and subjected to forms of unfree labour, expropriation of land and destruction of self-determining communities
primitive accumulation
Using data collected by others but applying new interpretations
secondary data analysis
The duty to work hard in one’s calling
Protestant work ethic
A society that uses continual observation, discipline, and correction of its subjects to exercise social control
normalizing society
When societal changes increase or decrease the relative income of an entire group or category of people vis-a-vis other groups
structural mobility
A set of cultural conventions, instructions, or rules used to combine symbols to communicate or interpret meaning
code
The shared meanings, symbols, concepts, categories and images of a social collectivity
collective representations
Unions of people within the same social category
endogamous marriages
(1) Interventions designed to reduce the likelihood of undesirable events occurring based on an assessment of probabilities of risk. (2) As a means of social control, the strategies to restructure the environment or context of problematic behaviour in order to minimize the risks to the general population
risk management
Data collected directly from firsthand experience
primary data
A means of social control that prohibits certain social behaviours and responds to violations with punishment
penal social control
A group function that serves an emotional need
expressive function
A theoretical perspective that focuses on inequality and power relations in society in order to achieve social justice and emancipation through their transformation
critical sociology
An approach to social change that advocates slow, incremental improvements in social institutions rather than rapid, revolutionary change of society as a whole
social reform
The external laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life
social facts
The regulation and enforcement of norms
social control
The tendency for the products of culture to detach themselves from lived experience and become increasingly complex, specialized, alienating, or oppressive
tragedy of culture
The idea that people understand the world based on their form of language
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Codes that maintain formal social control through laws
legal codes
Departures from normal behaviour that are not illegal but are widely regarded as harmful
social deviations
The interaction between scientific classifications and targeted “kinds of people,” which influences the behaviour of the people thus classified
looping effect
Interventions designed to reduce the likelihood of undesirable events occurring based on an assessment of probabilities of risk
risk management
The compounding effects of multiple determinants of social inequality
intersectionality
The external laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life
social facts
The state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities
absolute poverty
The style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members
leadership style
A means of social control that obliges an offender to pay a victim to compensate for a harm committed
compensatory social control
A group that an individual is not a member of and may compete with
out-group
In capitalism, the underclass of chronically unemployed or irregularly employed who are in and out of the workforce
lumpenproletariat
The ensemble of policies, rules, patterns of conduct, organizational forms and institutions which stabilize capitalist accumulation
mode of regulation
A set of instructions used to solve a problem or perform a task
algorithm
The concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority
global inequality
The ability to choose and act independently of external constraints
agency
Societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labour to create material goods
industrial societies
An arrangement of regular, predictable practices and behaviours on which society’s members base their daily lives and expectations
social order
Patterns of behaviour that are representative of a person’s social status
roles
1989–present
third wave of globalization
An unregulated economy of labour and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections
underground economy
When people prepare for future life roles
anticipatory socialization
Large, impersonal organizations
formal organizations
A period stretching from puberty to about 18-years-old characterized by the role adjustment from childhood to adulthood
adolescence
The three stages of child development (preparatory, play, game stage) in which the child develops the capacity to assume social roles
stages of child socialization
The culture of constant change and transformation associated with the rise of capitalism
modernity
The class of people defined by selling their labour for a wage or salary
proletariat
Sought consequences of a social process
manifest functions
A collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who do not interact or share a sense of identity
aggregate
After an initial victimization, secondary victimization is incurred through criminal justice processes
secondary victimization
The scientific study of social patterns using the methodological principles of the natural sciences
positivist sociology
In an experiment, the subjects or comparison group who are not exposed to the independent variable
control group
The self or self-image that arises as the reaction to the judgement of others
looking glass self
The transformation of social life into the raw material of data as a new stage of global colonization
data colonialism
A set of socially shared guidelines that define appropriate emotions in given situations
feeling rules
An activity in a bounded situation where there is a mutual focus of attention and a shared emotional experience
interaction ritual
the correlation between greater social inequality in a society and lower intergenerational mobility
Great Gatsby curve
A social process in which an individual’s social identity is established through the imposition of a definition by authorities
labelling
The extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms
conformity
The way in which the creation of culture is both constrained by limits given by the environment, and a means to go beyond these natural limits
dialectic of culture
Insecure employment based on subcontracting, temporary contracts, outsourcing and involuntary part-time work
precarious employment
Research approach that utilizes positivist, interpretive and reflexive methods to produce knowledge that maximizes the human potential for freedom and equality
critical research strategy
An act of self-presentation in which an individual expresses their view of the situation, their attitude towards the other members of the group, and their attitude towards themselves
line
Advanced systems of knowledge and practice required to run the complex institutional arrangements and technological systems of contemporary societies
expert system
A system of justice centred on healing and building or re-establishing community rather than retribution and punishment
traditional Aboriginal justice
In an experiment, the subjects who are exposed to the independent variable
experimental group
A status received by virtue of being born into a category or group (e.g., hereditary position, gender, race, etc.)
ascribed status
A sociological paradigm that models human interaction on the basis of calculated social exchanges of resources governed by a norm of reciprocity
exchange theory
A sociological approach which transforms aspects of social life into numerical variables, such as statistical methods and surveys with large numbers of participants
quantitative sociology
A form of biological determinism that suggests the qualities of human life are caused by genes
geneticism
Awareness of one’s class position and interests
class consciousness
Knowledge based on observations without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of observations
casual observation
Statuses obtained by personal effort or choice
achieved status
Social solidarity or cohesion through a complex division of labour, mutual interdependence, and restitutive law
organic solidarity
Unions of people from different social categories
exogamous marriages
A process in which a dominant group displaces their unfocused aggression and violence onto a subordinate group
scapegoating
The process of social exchange and reciprocal influence exercised by individuals over one another during social encounters
social interaction
The informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms
hidden curriculum
the ability of a dominant group in society to secure consent to its rule by successfully presenting its own interests, values and norms as the common sense interests, values and norms of everybody
hegemony
A set of policies in which the state reduces its role in providing public services, regulating industry, redistributing wealth, and protecting the commons while advocating the use of free market mechanisms to regulate society
neo-liberalism
Forms of cultural experience characterized by formal complexity, eternal values, or creative authenticity
high culture
Features that define the common culture of global society
late modernity
The process by which norms are used to differentiate, rank, and correct individual behaviour
normalization
An individual who has a large impact on a person’s socialization or plays a formative role in shaping their life
significant other
The study of the way everyday life is coordinated through institutional, textually mediated practices
institutional ethnography
A characteristic or measure of a social phenomenon that can take different values
variable
The notion that women lie about sexual assault out of malice toward men and women will say “no” to sexual relations when they really mean “yes”
twin myths of rape
The degree to which a group of people cohere or are bound together through shared consciousness, qualities or social ties
social solidarity
A type of analysis that proposes that social contradiction, opposition, and struggle in society drive processes of social change and transformation
dialectics
The ability to understand how personal problems of milieu relate to public issues of social structure
sociological imagination
The difference between the proportion of an identifiable group in a particular institution (like the correctional system) and their proportion in the general population
overrepresentation
The principle that territory and economic resources that are not being effectively utilized by an indigenous population could legitimately be expropriated and developed by a superior invading nation
Terra Nullius
The systematic study of society and social interaction
sociology
A practice of self-awareness, self-reflection, and self-monitoring in which people distance themselves from traditions and institutional roles to construct their own identities
reflexive subjectivity
Nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization
peripheral nations
The two components or phases of the self-reflective self
I and me
The ascribing of a deviant identity to another person by members of society
labelling theory
A defined group serving as the subject of a study
population
The process whereby former colonies attain formal political self-determination and independence from colonial powers
decolonization
A way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviours
sanctions
The specific reasons or drives that motivate individuals to interact
content
The generation of hypotheses and theories after the collecting and analysis of data
grounded theory
Buying and using products to make a statement about social standing
conspicuous consumption
An organization that people join to fill a specific material need
utilitarian organization
A two-member group
dyad
A detailed, systematic method for conducting research and obtaining data
research design
The testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions
experiment
The process in which work conditions increasingly resemble those of the traditional, blue-collar working class
proletarianization
The act of implanting a convention or norm into society
institutionalization
A violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others
primary deviance
Analytical framework that the development of global capitalism takes place less in the context of national economies and more in the context of global flows of capital investment in an increasingly integrated world market
global capitalism theory
A way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
social control
Societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services
information societies
A personality disorder characterized by anti-social behaviour, diminished empathy, and lack of inhibitions
sociopathy
Shared beliefs, values, and practices in a whole way of life
culture
The process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
socialization
The money a person earns from work or investments
income
An object, service, or good that has been produced for sale on the market
commodity
Living without the minimum amount of income or resources needed to be able to participate in the ordinary living patterns, customs, and activities of a society
relative poverty
Established, written rules
formal norms
How strongly a person is connected to their social group
social integration
A practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment, during the course of a study and in publishing results
value neutrality
A means of social control that reconciles the parties of a dispute and mutually restores harmony to a social relationship that has been damaged
conciliatory social control
A stratification system based on class structure and individual achievement
class system
The general tendency in modern society for all institutions and most areas of life to be transformed by the application of rationality and efficiency
rationalization
The use of tests by authorities to assess, document, and know individuals
examination
A hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions
laissez-faire leader
Crimes committed as ways in which individuals cope with conditions of oppression and inequality
crimes of accommodation
The study of specific, local relationships between individuals or small groups
micro-level sociology
In capitalism, the class of small owners like shopkeepers, farmers, and contractors who own some property and perhaps employ a few workers but rely on their own labour to survive
petite bourgeoisie
Penalties for rule breaking that are officially recognized and enforced
formal sanctions
A system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives
caste system
A collection of people tied together by a specific configuration of connections through which resources are exchanged
social network
Areas within the city characterized by high levels of migration, social diversity, and social change
zones of transition
Gesture, object, or component of language that represents a meaning recognized by people who share a culture
symbol
A theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society
structural functionalism
A system that has the authority to make decisions about criminal responsibility and sentencing based on law
court
A city which has become a central node in a global economic network
global city
Forms of contemporary culture characterized by a playful mixture of forms, pluralism, and the breakdown of centralized, modern culture
postmodern culture
The three stages of evolution that societies develop through: theological, metaphysical, and positive
law of three stages
A way of doing things that expresses the customs and know-how of a particular culture
cultural practice
A label that describes the chief characteristic of an individua
master status
Rules of behaviour that are generally and widely followed but not codified in law or institutional policy
informal norms
Cultural experiences, practices and products that are widely circulated, produced by or well-liked by “the people.”
popular culture
The involvement of Indigenous communities in the sentencing of Indigenous offenders
Aboriginal sentencing circles
The way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society
moral development
The process whereby social patterns become routinized through repetition so they can be performed again in the future in the same manner and with the same economical effort
habitualization
The gap between those who are able to access and make effective use of information technology and those who cannot
digital divide
The study of society-wide social structures and processes
macro-level sociology
The process through which objects, services, or goods are turned into commodities
commodification
Social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society
dysfunctions
The income needed to meet a family’s basic needs and enable them to participate in community life
living wage
Patterns or traits that are common to all societies
cultural universals
The structures of a social group of people who interact within a definable territory and who share a culture
society
The process of simultaneously analyzing the behaviour of an individual and the society that shapes that behaviour
figuration
A severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information
absolute poverty
The management of one’s face in light of the responses of others
face-work
Acts that violate social norms but are generally regarded as harmless
social diversions
A labour market divided into a core of relatively stable, well-paid jobs and a periphery of casual, precarious, and low-cost labour
bifurcated labour system
Strategies of social control that identify, classify, and manage groupings of offenders by the degree of risk they represent to the general public
new penology
Crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment
corporate crime
A theoretical perspective that focuses on the relationship of individuals within society by studying their communication (language, gestures, and symbols)
symbolic interactionism
The unequal distribution of valued resources, rewards, and positions in a society
social inequality
Small, informal groups that provide the individual with intimacy and support
primary groups
The philosophical tradition that seeks to determine the underlying laws that govern the truth of reason and ideas
rationalism
The idea that the characteristics of persons or groups are significantly influenced by biological factors or human nature, and are therefore largely similar in all human cultures and historical periods
essentialism
An institutionalized system of social inequality
social stratification
Crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force
nonviolent crimes
Knowledge based on observations that only confirm what the observer expects or wants to see
selective observation
The tendency of offenders to reoffend
recidivism
The conscious subversion of messages, signs, and symbols by altering them slightly
detournement
A group’s social position in a hierarchy based on income, education, and prestige of occupation
socio-economic status (SES)
Rewards given for conforming to norms
positive sanctions
The study of variations in gene expression under the impact of environmental influences
epigenetics
A law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son
primogeniture
Strategies used by a performer to control the impressions and responses of the others in a social interaction
impression management
1945-1989
second wave of globalization
Knowledge based on the accepted authority of the source
authoritative knowledge
A system where an employer compels a worker to pay off a debt with work
peonage
The capacity of individuals to act and make decisions independently
agency
A term from the Cold War era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living
second world
An idea that becomes true when acted on
self-fulfilling prophecy
An experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life
culture shock
When study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher
Hawthorne effect
A form of capitalism based on surveilling, extracting, and commodifying digital information about people
surveillance capitalism
The general tendency of modern institutions and most areas of life to be transformed by the application of instrumental reason
rationalization
The political form in which a single, central, supreme lawmaking authority governs within a clearly demarcated territory
sovereignty
The owners of the means of production in a society
bourgeoisie
An experiment in which researchers purposely break a commonly accepted social norm or behave in a socially awkward manner to examine people’s reactions
breaching experiment
Shared way in which people freely or voluntarily act upon themselves to transform themselves
practice of the self
The tendency to conform to the attitudes and beliefs of the group despite individual misgivings
groupthink
The state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country
relative poverty
People who share similar characteristics but who are not otherwise socially connected
category
Dominant capitalist countries
core nations
An irrational fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods
xenophobia
Referring to abstract concepts, complex processes, or mutable social relationships as “things.”
reification
Crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces
street crime
An array of roles attached to a particular status
role-set
Strong prohibitions based on deeply held sacred or moral beliefs
taboos
The condition in which an individual is isolated from their society, work, sense of self, and/or common humanity
alienation
Evaluating another culture according to the standards of one’s own culture
ethnocentrism
A systematic research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions
scientific method
Methodologies that derive a general statement from a series of empirical observations
inductive approach
Norms without any particular moral underpinnings
folkways
Promotion of making new reproductive technologies and human genetic engineering available to consumers to enhance human characteristics and capacities
new eugenics movement
Organizations that people choose to join to pursue shared interests or because they provide intangible rewards
normative or voluntary organizations
The wage labourers in capitalist society
proletariat
Serious moral injunctions or taboos that are broadly recognized in a society
mores
Large scale, societal patterns in people’s feelings or emotional responses towards things
structure of feeling
A theory that states individuals learn deviant behaviour from those close to them
differential association theory
The division of people into different occupations and specializations
division of labour
The study of how specific social contents are organized into regular patterns of social coordination
formal sociology
An economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership, production, and sale of goods in a competitive market
capitalism
Rules that are explicitly stated, written down, and standardized
explicit rules
Anything that is used in economic production in a society to produce goods, satisfy needs and maintain existence (e.g., land, animals, crop production, technology, factories, etc.)
means of production
A research focus on the properties of large scale, society-wide, social interactions
macro-level of analysis
The geological epoch defined by the impact of human activities on the global ecosystem
anthropocene
The stage in child development in which children begin to recognize and interact with particular others on the basis of fixed norms and roles
game stage
Specific ways of rendering abstract concepts in terms of measurable and observable criteria
operational definitions
A means of social control that uses therapy to return individuals to a normal state
therapeutic social control
A stable state in which all parts of a functioning society are working together properly
dynamic equilibrium
A means of enforcing rules through either rewards or punishments
sanctions
Societies based around the domestication of animals
pastoral societies
The experience of a fissure or division in consciousness when one crosses a line between the abstractions of institutional knowledge and the direct, lived experiences of everyday/every night life
dual consciousness
The process of dismantling colonial power structures
decolonization
A sociological research method that studies the social world from the point of view of the bodies and bodily practices of the participants
carnal sociology
An individual in a network is influenced by their immediate social contacts, their social contacts’ contacts, and their social contacts’ contacts’ contacts
three degrees of influence
A measure of income inequality in which zero is absolute equality and one is absolute inequality
Gini Index
A term from the Cold War era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies
first world
A network of owners of capital who are distributed around the world and focused on international markets, rather than their home markets, for investment and capital accumulation
transnational capitalist class
A system of social security whereby the government intervenes in the economy to redistribute resources and protect the health and well-being of its citizens
welfare state
An ideal system in which individual achievements determine social standing
meritocracy
The study of social structures and processes on the basis of a systematic description of the contents of subjective experience
phenomenology
The theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration
iron law of oligarchy
A technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance
dramaturgical analysis
An explanation about why something occurs
theory
A perspective that explains human behaviour in terms of the meanings individuals attribute to it
interpretive sociology
Societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival
hunter-gatherer societies
General patterns of social behaviour and organization that persist through time
social structure
Social solidarity or cohesion through a shared collective consciousness with harsh punishment for deviation from the norms
mechanical solidarity
How many people a person must take orders from versus how many people a person can give orders to or influence with their decisions
power
Agricultural societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership, protection, and mutual obligations
feudal societies
A collectivity based on shared emotional bonds, ambience, feeling, sensibility, or atmoshere
community of feeling
The division of people into categories based on socially significant characteristics, identities, and roles
social differentiation
An approach to understanding society that explains social change, human ideas, and social organization in terms of underlying changes in the economic (or material) structure of society
historical materialism
The patterns of behaviour that guide or regulate individuals’ actions in different social settings
forms
19th century-1914
first wave of globalization
A global pattern in which women increasingly bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty
global feminization of poverty
Organizational structure in which each individual has a specialized task to perform
division of labour
The process by which groups become isolated in ways that hinder their communication and cooperation with others
siloization
Various means used to make the lives and activities of individuals visible to authorities
surveillance
Crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force against a person or persons
violent crimes
The extended observation of the cultural practices, perspectives, beliefs and values of an entire social setting
ethnography
When people pledge themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom
debt bondage
Norms based on everyday cultural customs like etiquette
folkways
The division of society into economic classes (the social roles allotted to individuals by virtue of their position in an economic system of production)
relations of production
A society whose social structure is made up of networks organized through digital information and communications technologies
network society
A social condition or normlessness in which a lack of clear norms fails to give direction and purpose to individual actions
anomie
A group of people whose members interact, reside in a definable area, and share a culture
society
Penalties for rule breaking that occur in face-to-face interactions
informal sanctions
The belief that physiological sex differences between males and females are related to differences in their character, behaviour, and ability
dominant gender ideology
The increasing presence of the fast-food business model of control, predictability, calculability and efficiency in common social institutions
McDonaldization
Any two individuals on Earth can be linked on average by six network connections
six degrees of separation
Acts of deviance that may be illegal but about which there is considerable public disagreement concerning their seriousness
conflict crimes
When one or more of an individual’s roles clash
role conflict
A leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional well-being
expressive leader
A lowering of one’s social class
downward mobility
The act of labeling someone as criminal or deviant creates barriers and impediments that make it difficult for them to pass or survive in legitimate society. The label causes itself to become true
self-fulfilling prophecy
An argument that social inequality provides positive functional incentives in the occupational system
Davis-Moore thesis
A person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction
self
The distribution of impersonal information to a wide audience via television, newspapers, radio, and the internet
mass media
In capitalism, the owning class who live from the proceeds of owning or controlling capital
bourgeoisie
A research focus on the social dynamics of small groups and face-to-face interaction
micro-level of analysis
The consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across different social categories like income, education, and occupation
status consistency
The process whereby day-to-day life is increasingly less informed by traditions or the ways of life passed down in local cultural and ecological contexts
de-traditionalization
New forms of culture that arise from cross-cultural exchange and cultural blending
hybridity
The unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process
latent functions
Large, impersonal groups that are task-focused and time-limited
secondary groups
The privileges and benefits that a person experiences according to their prestige and role in society
status
A formal organization characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labour, explicit rules, impersonality and meritocracy
bureaucracy
The economic transition to sedentary, agriculture based societies beginning approximately 10,200 years
neolithic revolution
A theory that addresses the conflictual relationship between having socially acceptable goals while lacking socially acceptable means to reach those goals
strain theory
A leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before acting
democratic leader
A group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests
peer group
A stage of social evolution in which people explain events in terms of abstract or speculative ideas
metaphysical stage
A clear chain of command
hierarchy of authority
Theory stating that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations
dependency theory
Knowledge based on received beliefs or the way things have always been done
traditional knowledge
The process in which day to day life is no longer completely embedded in local, micro-level interactions but becomes coordinated and organized on a global basis
disembedding
Information from research collected in numerical form that can be counted
quantitative data
A threshold that needs to be crossed for violence to take place in face to face conflicts
confrontational tension/fear barrier
Internationally integrated economic links that connect workers and corporations around the world for the purpose of manufacture, distribution, and marketing
global commodity chains
A violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms
deviance
The study of structures and processes that extend beyond the boundaries of states or specific societies
global level of analysis
A stage of social evolution in which people explain events with respect to the will of God or gods
theological stage
An organization that exists to enforce a legal code
criminal justice system
The role a social phenomenon performs in satisfying a social or biological need and ensuring the continuity of society
social function
A theoretical perspective that focuses on the relationship of individuals within society by studying their communication (language, gestures and symbols)
symbolic interactionism
The study of deep unconscious rules or codes that govern cultural activities and constrain possibilities in different domains of social life
structuralism
The common behavioural expectations of general society
generalized other
the market value of all goods and services produced within a country in a given time period
gross domestic product (GDP)
An expanding cycle of deviance, media-generated public fears, and police reaction
moral panic
A set of paired terms, considered as mutually exclusive and logical opposites, which structure a whole set or system of associated meanings
binary opposition
An explanation of in-group/out-group behaviour which predicts that antagonism will develop between groups if there is a competition for a resource in which only one group can be the winner and in the absence of superordinate goals requiring cooperation
realistic conflict theory
The study of structures and processes that extend beyond the boundaries of states or specific societies
global-level sociology
A theoretical perspective that focuses on the socially created nature of social life
social constructivism
A theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes toward work
modernization theory
A stance of contemporary individuality and institutional life that involves (a) continuous monitoring of activities and performance to assess effectiveness and future risks, and (b) a readiness to modify understandings and practices in response to new information
reflexivity
General patterns of social behaviour and social coordination that persist through time and become habitual or routinized at micro-levels of interaction or institutionalized at macro or global levels of interaction
social structure
The degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study
validity
A culture’s standard for discerning desirable states in society
values
A form of society characterized by irreducible social heterogeneity, contingent social relationships, and ephemeral organizational structures
postmodern society
A representative subset of a population selected without bias. Every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study
random sample
A leader who issues orders and demands compliance from subordinates
authoritarian leader
The relationship between core and peripheral countries in which resources of the hinterlands are shipped to the metropolises to be converted into manufactured goods and then shipped back to the hinterlands for consumption
metropolis-hinterland relationship
A time when children begin to episodically imitate and take on roles that another person might have
play stage
A set of guidelines established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology or other disciplines
code of ethics
Institutional architecture that renders subjects visible to a centralized authority; Jeremy Betham’s model for the ideal prison
panopticon
The mutual understanding of a shared social context, which arises out of communicative interaction
definition of the situation
Immersion by a researcher in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective
participant observation
A situation in which an individual is trapped by the rational and efficient processes of social institutions
iron cage
