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AP Psychology (Class) > Mid-Year Exam (Units 1,2,3,4,5,6,9) > Flashcards

Mid-Year Exam (Units 1,2,3,4,5,6,9) Flashcards

1
Q

Mirror Neurons

A
  • Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
  • The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
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2
Q

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

A
  • A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms
  • In response to light, causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
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3
Q

Self-control

A

-The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

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4
Q

Mary Ainsworth

A
  • Did “strange situation” experiment to study attachment types (secure vs insecure)
  • 60% of infants display secure attachment
  • Observed mother-infant pairs whose child was 6 months old, then observed at 1 year in strange situation
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5
Q

Assimulation

A

-Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

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6
Q

Y Chromosome

A
  • The sex chromosome found only in males

- When paired with an X chromosome from the mother produces a male child

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7
Q

Generalization

A

-The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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8
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A
  • Observation of people or animals in their natural environments without interference from observer
  • Behavior is not artificial (how they behavior in real world situations)
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9
Q

Carl Rogers

A
  • First humanistic psychologist
  • Behaviorism and Freudian psych= too limiting
  • Drew attention to ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit potential growth, and the importance of having our needs of love and acceptance satisfied
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10
Q

Functionalism

A
  • Early school of thought promoted by William James (founder) and Charles Darwin
  • Explored how mental and behavioral processes function
    • How they enable the organism to flourish, adapt, and survive
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11
Q

Epigenetics

A

-The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

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12
Q

Random Assignment

A
  • Seen in experimentation
  • How we allocate people to control or experimental group
  • Done to avoid two drastically different groups (therefore we can predict if differences are from variables)
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14
Q

Neurotransmitters

A
  • Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
  • When released by a sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron
    • influence whether a neuron will generate a neural impulse
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15
Q

Zygote

A
  • The fertilized egg

- Enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

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16
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A
  • Piaget’s Theory
  • The stage from birth to about 2 years
  • Infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activites
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17
Q

Alcohol Use Disorder

A
  • Alcoholism

- Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use

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18
Q

Control Group

A
  • Normal group

- Used as comparison to experimental group (Nothing done to it)

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19
Q

Law of Effect

A

-Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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21
Q

Fetus

A

-The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

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22
Q

AIDS

A
  • A life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
  • Depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
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23
Q

Testing Effect

A
  • Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
  • Sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
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24
Q

Maturation

A

-Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

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25
Q

Attachment

A
  • An emotional tie with another person

- Shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

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26
Q

Object Permanence

A
  • The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
  • Sensorimotor Stage
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27
Q

Psychology

A
  • The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
    • Behavior: anything an organism does (yelling, smiling, laughing)
    • Mental processes: Internal (sensations, thoughts, dreams)
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28
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

-The Scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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29
Q

MRI

A
  • Shows what the brain looks like (soft tissue only)

- Does not show what it is doing/function

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30
Q

Conditioned Reinforcer

A
  • A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
  • also know as a secondary reinforcer
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31
Q

Margaret Harlow

A
  • Bred monkeys for attachment experimentation w/ husband

* Info on his card*

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32
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A
  • Carry info to and from Central Nervous System
  • Made up of sensory (Afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons
  • Carries out commands from CNS
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34
Q

Higher-order learning

A
  • A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
  • Ex: an animal that have leaned that a tone predicts food night then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone
  • Second-order conditioning
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35
Q

Gender role

A

-A set of expected behaviors for males or for females

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36
Q

Natural Selection

A
  • The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to the succeeding generations
  • Created by Charles Darwin (believed it also shaped behaviors as well as bodies)
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37
Q

John Garcia

A
  • Studied taste aversion
  • Why do we avoid foods?
    • Usually taste
  • Challenged the idea that all associations can be learned equally well
    • Radiation made rats not want to drink the water in their radiation chambers
    • Rats avoided tastes, sounds, or other sensations when associated with nausea
  • Elected to the National Academy of Sciences
  • APA’s Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award
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38
Q

Conditioned Stimulus

A

-In classical conditioning , an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response

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39
Q

Humanistic Psychology

A

-A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

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40
Q

Psychometrics

A

-The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

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42
Q

Insight

A

-A sudden realization of a problem’s solution

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43
Q

Critical period

A

-An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

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44
Q

Hallucinations

A

-False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

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46
Q

Positive Pyschology

A
  • The scientific study of human functioning

- Has the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive

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48
Q

Imprinting

A

-The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period

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49
Q

Occipital Lobe

A
  • Very important!!

- Complex visual processing

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51
Q

Limbic System

A
  • Emotion(fear, aggression, happiness), memory
  • Mammalian brain (pets: dogs, cats)
  • Stuck between straight survival and advanced thinking)
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53
Q

Edward Thorndike

A
  • Puzzle boxes
    • Placed cats inside and they would learn from behavior, get better at solving once placed in many time
  • Built foundation for operant conditioning
  • Known for his studies on if animals could learn based on consequences
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54
Q

Intimacy

A
  • In Erikson’s theory
  • The ability to form close, loving relationships
  • A primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
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55
Q

Brainstem

A
  • Oldest part of the brain
  • Innermost part
  • Survival functions
    • Keeps you alive (breathing, heart beating)
    • No complex thought
  • Part of the reptilian brain (snakes)
  • Where info streams into the brain
  • Cross-wiring point
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56
Q

Reinforcement Schedule

A

-A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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57
Q

Schema

A

-A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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58
Q

Robert Rescorla

A
  • Said animals can learn the predictability of events
  • If a shock was preceded by a tone which is preceded by a light, animals would be afraid of the tone because they knew the shock was coming (better predictor than light)
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59
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A
  • The study of the evolution of behavior and mind

- Uses principles of natural selection

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59
Q

Replication

A
  • repeating the essence of a research study
  • usually with different participants in different situations
  • To see whether the basic finding extends to other participants or circumstances
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60
Q

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

A
  • Efferent

- Sends responses from brain and spinal chord to tissues and organs

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61
Q

Testosterone

A
  • The most important of the male sex hormones
  • Both males and female have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development o the male sex characteristics during puberty
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62
Q

Harry Harlow

A
  • Attachment theorist
  • Studied what causes attachment and what makes it so strong
  • Created an experiment to show why we attach
    • For food or comfort?
    • Monkey spent 17 to 18 hours with comfy mother, 1 with feeding mother (contact comfort= more important)
    • When scared, baby went to cloth mother
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67
Q

NREM Sleep

A
  • Non-rapid eye movement sleep

- Encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

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68
Q

Accomodation

A

-Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorperate new information

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69
Q

Dream

A
  • A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind
  • notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamers delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it
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70
Q

Nerves

A

-Bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

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72
Q

Fixed Ratio Schedule

A

-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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73
Q

Formal Operational Stage

A
  • Piaget’s theory
  • Beginning at 12
  • people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
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74
Q

Eric Erikson

A
  • Created the stages of social development

- Each stage of life is associated with a psychosocial task that needs resolution

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75
Q

Discrimination

A

-In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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76
Q

Reflex

A

-A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

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77
Q

Experimental Psychology

A

-The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

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77
Q

Psychiatry

A
  • A branch of medicine dealing with psychology disorders

- Practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

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80
Q

Amygdala

A
  • -Fear and aggression center
  • Anxiety (active during anxiety)
  • Experience, express, interpret (in other people)
  • Memory (cements horrific experience in memory)
    • Ex: PTSD
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81
Q

Narcolepsy

A
  • a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks
  • The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
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82
Q

Operational Definition

A
  • Carefully worded definition of your variables in a research study
  • Ex: when talking about how stress relates to sleep, you have to define quantities of sleep
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83
Q

X Chromosome

A
  • The sex chromosome found in both men and women
  • Females have two , males have one
  • One from each parent produces a female child
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84
Q

Experimental Group

A

-Manipulated group (tweaked)

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85
Q

Teratogens

A
  • “monster maker”

- Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

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86
Q

Menopause

A
  • The time of natural cessation of menstruation

- Refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

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87
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

-The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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88
Q

Paul Broca

A
  • French Physician

- Discovered Broca’s area in frontal lobe: production of speech

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89
Q

Dependent Variable

A
  • Happens because of the independent variable

- Measured

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90
Q

Axon

A
  • Neuron extension
  • Sends message across the neuron through its branches (axon terminals) to other neurons or muscles/glands
  • Electro-impulse
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93
Q

Puberty

A

-The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

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94
Q

Theory

A

-An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

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95
Q

Community Psychology

A
  • A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments
  • how social institutions affect individuals and groups
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96
Q

Statistical Significance

A
  • A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
  • Lower than 5% is insignificant
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97
Q

Albert Bandura

A
  • Bobo doll experiment
  • Stated that children can learn from aggression
    • Kids watching aggression video were more likely to use objects in room in aggressive/creative ways
    • Disproved catharsis: viewing aggressive model releases a person’s aggression
  • We imitate people we:
    • Believe are successful
    • Admire
    • Are similar to
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98
Q

THC

A
  • The major active ingredient in marijuana

- Triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

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99
Q

Hypothalamus

A
  • -Bodily maintenance
    • Homeostasis
  • Drives (hunger, thirst)
  • Controls ES (endocrine system, works with pituitary gland)
  • Reward center
    • Sends out feel-good messages when you maintain homeostasis
  • Olas and Milner
    • Hooked rat’s part up to electrodes
    • Stimulated it and the rat kept wanting it stimulated
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100
Q

PET Scan

A
  • Uses radioactive glucose to see how the brain is functioning
  • Sees when the glucose is being consumed
    • Allows us to see what parts of the brain are the most active (where the most glucose is being consumed)
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102
Q

Alpha Waves

A

-The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

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103
Q

Basic Research

A
  • Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
  • Ex: Developmental, educational, personality, etc.
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104
Q

Longitudinal Study

A

-Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time

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105
Q

Variable Ratio Schedule

A

-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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106
Q

Amphetamines

A

-Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

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107
Q

Culture

A
  • The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people
  • Transmitted from one generation to the next
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108
Q

Critical Thinking

A
  • Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
  • Examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
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108
Q

Measures of Central Tendency

A
  • Mode: most frequently occurring score(s)
  • Mean: average
  • Median: middle score
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109
Q

Carol Gilligan

A
  • Androcentric
  • Did male research
  • Ethics of Caring= female
  • Ethics of Justice= males
  • Women are less concerned with being viewed as an individual, and more with making connections
    • Females= more interdependent than males
    • Boys form larger groups in children’s play & more competitive play
    • Girls= smaller groups, less competitive, more
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111
Q

Adolescence

A

-The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

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113
Q

Endocrine System

A
  • The body’s “slow” chemical communication system
  • set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
    • Reason why it is slow
  • influences growth, reproduction, metabolism, mood
  • works hand-in-hand with nervous system
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115
Q

Case Study

A
  • Tries to find something universal (Not good at it)
  • Looks at 1 individual, group or event IN DEPTH
  • Uses rare or abnormal cases
  • Generates ideas for future research
  • Cannot determine cause (No control of variables)
  • Can’t generalize to a larger population
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115
Q

Sampling Bias

A

-A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

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116
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A
  • Higher thought
  • Humans only
  • Outer Covering of the brain (thin)
    • Where synaptic connections happen, where the neurons communicate
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117
Q

Temporal Lobe

A
  • Located near temples, extends past ears
  • Where auditory processing happens
  • Maintains balance and equilibrium
  • Handles language comprehension
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118
Q

Environment

A

–Every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

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123
Q

Glial Cells

A
  • -Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
  • May also play a role in learning and thinking
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124
Q

Night Terrors

A
  • A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified
  • Unlike nightmares, they NREM-3 sleep with 2 to 3 hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
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125
Q

Corpus Callosum

A
  • -Connect the two hemispheres
  • How the two hemispheres communicate
  • Allows information to be processes by both sides of the brain
  • Made up of a band of neural fibers
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126
Q

Unconditioned Response

A

-In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (food)

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127
Q

Insomnia

A

-Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

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128
Q

Social Psychology

A

-The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

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129
Q

BF Skinner

A
  • Modern behaviorist (controversial)
  • studied operant conditioning using an operant chamber
  • Consequences shape behavior
  • Worked with animals to teach them to do “non animal” type things
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130
Q

Barbiturates

A

-Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

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131
Q

G Stanley Hall

A
  • First president of the APA
  • Storm vs Stress
  • established the first formal United States psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University
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132
Q

Cerebellum

A
  • -“Little brain” located at the rear of the brainstem
  • Coordinates voluntary movement (somatic)
  • Balance and coordination
    • Impacted by alcohol
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133
Q

Cocaine

A

-A powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

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134
Q

Skewed Distribution

A

-A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

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135
Q

Molecular genetics

A

-The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

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136
Q

Correlation

A
  • Finds the relationship between variables
  • Tells us how strong the relationship and what direction
  • Types:
    • Positive (direct relationship) and Negative (inverse relationship)
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137
Q

Emotion-Focused Coping

A

-Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

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138
Q

Survey

A
  • Asks a lot of people a good amount of questions

- A random sample of population that represents the whole (reflect wider population)

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138
Q

Illusory Correlation

A

-The perception of a relationship where none exists

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139
Q

Michael Gazzaniga

A
  • Asked people w/ split brain to stare at a dot while he flashed HEART on the screen
  • Would say they saw ART (seen with right visual field), but when asked to point, pointed with their left hand at HE
  • Concluded left hemisphere is interpreter
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140
Q

Depressants

A

-Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

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141
Q

Fixed Interval Schedule

A

-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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142
Q

Somatosensory Cortex

A
  • Areas of the front of the parietal lobes

- Register and process body touch and movement sensations

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143
Q

Discriminative Stimulus

A

-In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association wth reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

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144
Q

Conditioned Response

A

-In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

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145
Q

Cognitive Map

A
  • A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

- Ex: rats in maze act as if they have learned it

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146
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A
  • Works with parasympathetic
  • Responds to stressors
  • Diverts energy away from areas that don’t need it
  • Fight or flight response (adrenaline)
    • Ex: Sweating, raised heart rate
  • Spends energy
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147
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A
  • Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking
  • In severe cases,signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
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148
Q

Educational Psychology

A

-The study of how psychological processes affect and enhance learning and teaching

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149
Q

Transgender

A

-An umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

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150
Q

Post-Hypnotic Suggestion

A

-A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

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151
Q

Methamphetamine

A
  • A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
  • Over time appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
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152
Q

Range

A
  • Measure of Variation

- Highest score minus lowest score

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153
Q

Independent Variable

A
  • Changed/ manipulated

- Used on experimental group

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154
Q

Nature-Nurture Issue

A
  • The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experiences make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
  • Today, science sees traits and behaviors arising from interaction of nature and nurture
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155
Q

Threshold

A

-The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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156
Q

Concrete Operational Stage

A
  • Piaget’s theory
  • Stage of cognitive development (starting at 6/7 to 11)
  • children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
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157
Q

Self-concept

A

-All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question “who am I”

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158
Q

Gender

A

-The socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

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159
Q

Lawrence Kohlberg

A
  • Created the stages of moral reasoning by asking people of all ages moral dilemmas
  • Work reflected individualistic culture and emphasized thinking over acting
  • Preconventional, conventional, postconventional form a moral ladder (begin at the bottom rung and ascend)
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160
Q

Biopsychosocial Approach

A

-An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

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160
Q

Human Factors Psychology

A
  • an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact
  • how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
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162
Q

Ernest Hilgard

A
  • Famed researcher
  • Believed that hypnosis involved social influence and but also the dissociation
    • Vivid form of everyday mind-splits
    • When people are hypnotized to put arm in ice bath, they are separated from the pain (cold but not painful)
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163
Q

Population

A
  • All those in a group being studied
  • From which samples may be drawn (except in natural studies)
  • Does not refer to a country’s whole population
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164
Q

Debriefing

A
  • Ethics of Experimentation created by the APA
  • At the end of experiment
    - Made aware of deception/ purpose of experiment
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165
Q

CT Scan

A

-series of X-Ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

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166
Q

Synapse

A

-The junction between the axon terminals of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the cell body of the receiving neuron

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167
Q

SQ3R

A

-Study method incorporating 5 steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review

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168
Q

Hormones

A
  • Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream (slow)
  • Help with growth and development
    • Changes occur in a longer period of time (hormones build up, which causes change)
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168
Q

Thalamus

A
  • -Sensory Switchboard
    • Relays sense info to high brain destination for processing
      • Vision, taste, hearing, balance
      • All senses except for smell
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169
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A
  • Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups
  • Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
170
Q

Inferential Statistics

A
  • Numerical data that allows one to generalize

- Infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

171
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A
  • Autopilot
    • Regulates things you do automatically (don’t have to think about it)
    • Respiration, blinking, heart beating
  • Working of inner glands and organs
173
Q

Social Clock

A

-The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

174
Q

Nervous System

A

-The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

175
Q

Cognitive learning

A

-The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

177
Q

Variable Interval Schedule

A

-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

178
Q

Cognition

A

-All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

179
Q

Structuralism

A
  • Introduced by Edward Bradford Titchener at Cornell University
  • Early school of psychology promoted by Wundt and Titchener
  • Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
180
Q

Hypnosis

A

-A social interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person’s (the hypnotist’s) suggestions that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur

181
Q

Aggression

A

-Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

186
Q

Plasticity

A

–The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

187
Q

Tolerance

A
  • -Diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug
  • Requires the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
  • Caffeine
188
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

-A desire to perform a belabor to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

189
Q

Genes

A
  • -The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
  • Segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
191
Q

Role

A

-A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

192
Q

Central Nervous System

A
  • Makes decisions within the body
  • Messages end up or organize here (processes info)
  • Parts: Brain and Spinal Chord (Made up of Interneurons)
193
Q

Theory of Mind

A
  • People’s ideas about their own and other’s mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
  • PreOperational Stage
194
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A
  • Father of Psychology
  • Professor at Germany’s University of Leipzig (first psych lab)
  • Did experiments using introspection (focusing on sensations, images, and feelings)
  • Measured time between when a ball hit a platform and the person heard it and hit a telegraph key
195
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus

A
  • In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers a response (UR)
  • Food
196
Q

Consciousness

A
  • -Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
  • Studied in cognitive neuroscience
  • Evolutionary psychologists think it has a reproductive advantage
  • Helps us act in our long-term interests instead of seeking short-term pleasure and avoiding pain
  • Promotes survival:
    • Anticipates how we seem to others & reads their minds
197
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

-The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

198
Q

Confounding Variable

A

-A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

198
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A
  • Voluntary control of skeletal muscles (acetylcholine)

- Made up of motor neurons

198
Q

Dual Processing

A
  • -Two-Track mind
  • The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
  • Ex: when you encounter a person
    • Aware or conscious of person
    • You know it is a person through unconscious processing
  • Low Road vs. High Road
    • Conscious deliberate vs. unconscious automatic
199
Q

Edward Tolman

A
  • Further developed latent learning
  • Created the idea of the cognitive map
    • Came from studying rats in mazes who learned to navigate it without reward
200
Q

Egocentrism

A
  • Piaget’s theory

- A child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view (PreOperational Stage)

201
Q

Validity

A

-The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

201
Q

Split Brain (Surgery)

A

-A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus Callosum) connecting them

202
Q

Neuron

A
  • A nerve cell

- The basic building block of the nervous system

203
Q

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

A

-The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in work places

203
Q

Heritability

A
  • The portion of variation among individuals that we can contribute to genes
  • may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied
205
Q

Lesion

A
  • -Tissue destruction

- a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

205
Q

DNA

A
  • Deoxyribonucleic Acid

- A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

206
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A
  • Works with sympathetic
  • Maintains homeostasis
  • Long-term survival
  • Conserves energy
  • Calms you back down
207
Q

Psychodynamic Psychology

A
  • A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior
  • Uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
207
Q

Mutation

A

-A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

208
Q

Preoperational Stage

A
  • Piaget’s theory
  • Stage from 2 to 6/7 years
  • Child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
209
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

-The helplessness and passive resignation an animal or man learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

210
Q

Normal Curve

A
  • A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve
  • Describes the distribution of many types of data
  • most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it)
    • Fewer near the extremes
210
Q

Chromosomes

A

-Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

211
Q

Secondary Sex Characteristics

A

-Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

212
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A

-The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language)

212
Q

Action Potential

A
  • Sending a message/ a neural impulse
  • A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
  • Positive ions enter the axon
  • Depolarization (mix of positive and negative ions)
  • Leads to a chain reaction of depolarization
213
Q

Hallucinogens

A

-psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

214
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A
  • Father of classical conditioning
    • Discovered it and came up with terminology
  • Physiologist: anatomy and functioning of canine body
  • Observed odd patterns of salivation in dogs
    • Began experimentation
215
Q

Near-Death Experience

A
  • An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (similar to cardiac arrest)
  • Often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
216
Q

All-or-None Principle/Response

A
  • Neurons fire according to this principle
  • It will either fire with a full-strength response or it won’t
  • Once action potential happens, you cannot stop it
217
Q

Frontal Lobe

A
  • -Concentration
  • Emotional regulation
  • Personality (Makes you unique)
  • Between frontal and parietal lobe is the motor cortex
  • Goal-directed behavior
  • Complex problem solving
218
Q

Dissociation

A

-A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

220
Q

Menarche

A

-The first menstrual period

221
Q

Internal Locus of Control

A

-The perception that you control your own fate

222
Q

Habituation

A

-An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

225
Q

Motor Cortex

A
  • Controls voluntary movements (somatic)

- Located in the rear of the frontal lobes

226
Q

Random Sample

A
  • Used w/ survey research method

- everyone has equal chance of being selected (represents the larger population

227
Q

Behaviorism

A
  • Early school of psychology
  • The view that psychology:
    1. Should be an objective science
    2. Studies behavior without reference to mental processes
      • Most psychologists agree with 1, but not 2
  • Behaviorists: John B Watson & B.F Skinner (more important)
227
Q

Reticular Formation

A
  • -Basic Filter (filters out sounds you aren’t listening to etc.)
  • Alertness and arousal
  • Attentional filter
  • Scientists got rid of this in cats and they had comas
228
Q

Interneurons

A
  • Process Stimuli and create response

- Located in brain and spinal chord

228
Q

Substance Use Disorder

A

-Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

231
Q

Cross-sectional study

A

-A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

232
Q

William James

A
  • philosopher, psychologist, functionalist (founder)
  • wrote one of the first introductory psychology texts, Principles of Psychology
  • Taught Mary Whiton Calkins
  • Inspired by Darwin
233
Q

Hindsight Bias

A
  • The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you would have foreseen it
  • Leads us to overestimate our intuition
233
Q

Agonist

A
  • Class of Chemicals
  • Mimics a neurotransmitter and does the same thing as it
  • Mimics structure of neurotransmitter
  • A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
234
Q

Antagonist

A
  • Blocks function of neurotransmitter
  • Mimics the structure of a neurotransmitter
  • A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
234
Q

Identical Twins

A
  • Monozygotic twins

- Twins who developed from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

235
Q

Mary Whiton Calkins

A
  • Taught by James at Harvard
  • Denied a Ph.D in psychology even though she met all the requirements
  • APA’s first female president and memory researcher
236
Q

Carl Wernicke

A
  • German investigator

- Discovered Wernicke’s area in temporal lobe :understanding of speech

237
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

-Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

238
Q

Observational Learning

A
  • Learning by observing others

- Also called social learning

240
Q

Adrenal Glands

A
  • Made up of both the Adrenal Cortex and Adrenal Medulla
    • Medulla
      • Produces nonessential hormones
        • Ex. Adrenaline
      • Reacts to stress
    • Adrenal Cortex
      • Produces cortisol
        - Regulates stress and metabolism
      • Produces Aldosterone
        - Controls blood pressure
  • Issues
    • Cushing’s Syndrome- too much cortisol
      • Lose weight in extremities but gain it in your midsection, neck, and face
241
Q

Levels of Analysis

A

-The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

241
Q

Fraternal Twins

A
  • Dizygotic Twins
  • Twins who developed from separate fertilized eggs
  • They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
241
Q

Interaction

A

-The interplay that occur when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

243
Q

Standard Deviation

A
  • Measure of Variation

- A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean

243
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

-A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessation in breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

244
Q

Endorphins

A
  • “Morphine within”

- Natural opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain-control & pleasure

247
Q

Embryo

A

-The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

249
Q

Sigmund Freud

A
  • Controversial personality theorist
  • Emphasized the ways emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious thought processes affect our behavior
  • Father of the Psychoanalytic School of Psychology
  • divided the mind into the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind
250
Q

Lev Vygotsky

A
  • Russian developmental psychologist
  • Child’s mind grows through interaction with social environment
  • Children internalize culture’s language and rely on inner speech
  • zone of proximal development: zone of what a child can do with help
251
Q

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

A
  • afferent

- take info from external environment or tissues and organs to central nervous system

253
Q

Shaping

A

-An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

254
Q

Delta Waves

A

-The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

255
Q

Charles Darwin

A
  • Believed natural selection shapes behavior as well as bodies
  • Wrote “On The Origin of Species”
  • Created natural selection
256
Q

Sexual Orientation

A

-An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation)

257
Q

Biofeedback

A

-A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

261
Q

Associative learning

A
  • Learning that certain events occur together

- The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning)

262
Q

Applied Research

A

-Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

262
Q

EEG

A
  • electroencephalogram
  • Gives insight on how the brain is functioning by placing electrodes on the skin
  • Doesn’t give specific info, only overall
262
Q

Behavior Genetics

A

–The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

262
Q

REM Rebound

A
  • The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
  • Created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep
263
Q

Basic Trust

A
  • According to Eric Erikson
  • A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy
  • Said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
264
Q

Refractory Period

A
  • After action potential
  • A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired (getting ready to fire again)
    • Unable to do so for a bit of time
264
Q

Acquisition

A
  • In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
  • Operant conditioning: the strengthening of a reinforced response
265
Q

Addiction

A

-Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

267
Q

External Locus of Control

A

-The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

268
Q

Conservation

A

-The principle (part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

269
Q

Opiates

A
  • Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin

- Depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

269
Q

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A
  • A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen
  • Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and long-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
270
Q

Hypothesis

A

-A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

270
Q

Sleep

A
  • Period, natural loss of consciousness

- Distinct from loss of consciousness resulting a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

271
Q

Empiricism

A
  • The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
  • Built off of Bacon’s and Locke’s ideas
272
Q

Placebo/ Placebo Effect

A
  • -“Shall I please”
  • Experimental results caused by expectations alone
  • Any affect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition (recipient assumes is an active ingredient)
272
Q

Parietal Lobe

A
  • -Adjacent to frontal lobes

- Has sensory cortex (registers sensory input- touch, body sensations)

272
Q

Genome

A
  • The complete instructions for making an organism

- Consists of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes

273
Q

Nicotine

A

-A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

274
Q

FMRI

A
  • Traces oxygen flow in the brain (which reveals blood flow)
  • Reveals brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans
  • Show brain function as well as structure
275
Q

Primary Sex Characteristics

A

-The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

276
Q

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A

-A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

277
Q

Dorothea Dix

A
  • Led the way to humane treatment of those with psychological disorders
  • Therapy
278
Q

Behavioral Psychology

A

-The scientific study of observable behavior, and it’s explanation by principles of learning

280
Q

Biological Psychology

A
  • The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
    • Ex: behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists
281
Q

Margaret Floy Washburn

A
  • 1st woman to receive a psychology Ph.D
  • Wrote “the animal mind”
  • 2nd female APA president
  • Not allowed to join organization of experimental psychologists
282
Q

Pituitary Gland

A
  • -Master Gland
  • Major Function: Controls growth and development and the functioning of other endocrine glands
  • Hormones: Growth hormone, Puberty hormones, Prolactin, and Adrenocorticotropic
  • Potential issues:
    • Benign growths called “adenoma”
    • stops hormone production or overproduces hormones
283
Q

Identity

A
  • Our sense of self

- According to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

284
Q

Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga

A
  • Psychologists
  • Divided the brain by splitting the corpus callosum in cats and monkeys–> no bad effects
  • Set information to each eye to see how we process information in each hemisphere since information cannot be communicated in between
285
Q

Stimulants

A
  • Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine)
  • excite neural activity and speed up body functions
286
Q

Primary Reinforcer

A

-An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

287
Q

Prosocial Behavior

A
  • Positive, constructive, helpful behavior

- Opposite of antisocial behavior

288
Q

Reinforcement

A

-In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

288
Q

Modeling

A

-The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

289
Q

Medulla

A
  • -Breathing
  • Heart rate
  • Crossover point
  • “Medic” of your brain
290
Q

Stranger Anxiety

A
  • The fear of strangers that infants commonly display
  • Beginning 8 months of age
  • Sensorimotor stage
291
Q

Social-Cultural Psychology

A

-The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

291
Q

Neutral Stimulus

A

-In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

291
Q

Operant Chamber

A
  • In operant conditioning research
  • A chamber (Skinner box) containing a bar or key that animals can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
  • Attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking
292
Q

Neurogenesis

A

-The formation of new neurons

292
Q

Problem-Focused Coping

A

-Attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way interact with that stressor

293
Q

LSD

A
  • A powerful hallucinogenic drug

- Also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

294
Q

REM Sleep

A
  • Rapid eye movement sleep
  • A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
  • Also known as paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed (except minor twitches) but other body systems are active
294
Q

Learning

A

-The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

294
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A
  • Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers

- Positive reinforcer: any stimulus that when presented after a response, strengthens the response

295
Q

Diane Baumrind

A
  • Studied types of parenting styles and which one works best (authoritative)
  • Parenting styles: Too hard, too soft, and just right
  • Authoritative: child has good self esteem, self-reliant, and socially competent
  • Authoritarian: low self-esteem, poor social skills
  • Permissive: aggressive and immature
296
Q

John B Watson

A
  • Worked with Rosalie Rayner
  • Demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby known as “Little Albert” and made him fear a white rat
  • father of behaviorism
  • dismissed introspection
  • suggested psychology study how people respond to stimuli (behavior) rather than inner thoughts, feelings, and motives
  • Redefine psychology as the “the scientific study of observable behavior”
298
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A
  • The biological clock

- Regular bodily rhythms (temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

299
Q

Punishment

A

-An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

300
Q

Gender Identity

A

-Our sense of being male or female

301
Q

Personality Psychology

A

-The study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

301
Q

Scatterplot

A
  • Graphed cluster of dots
  • represents the values of two variables
  • Slope suggests the direction of the relationship
  • Scatter suggests strength of correlation
302
Q

Association Areas

A
  • Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions
  • Involved in higher mental functions
    • learning, thinking remembering, speaking
    • Link sensory input w/ stored memories
302
Q

Stimulus

A

-Any event or situation that evokes a response

303
Q

Correlational Coefficient

A
  • Correlation: measure of the extent to which two variables change together (how well either variable predicts the other)
  • A statistical index between two variables
  • Between -1 and 1
  • Perfect correlation (1 or -1)
303
Q

Manifest Content

A

-According to Freud, the remembered story-line of a dream (as distinct from latent or hidden content)

304
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

-A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

305
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A
  • Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
  • Negative reinforcer: any stimulus that , when removed after a response, strengthens the response
307
Q

Developmental Psychology

A

-A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout a lifespan

307
Q

Counseling Psychology

A
  • A branch of psychology that assists people with living and achieving a greater well-being
  • often related to school, work, or marriage
307
Q

Experiment

A
  • -Pro:Only research method that can tell us causation(variables are controlled)
  • Con: Situation is artificial, results may not generalize to the real world
  • Things can be tweeked
  • Two groups in experimentation: control group and experimental group
307
Q

Dendrites

A
  • Branch Extensions of the neuron
  • Pick up information/ receive messages
  • Conduct impulses towards the cell body
  • Absorb neurotransmitters
307
Q

Myelin Sheath

A
  • Fat insulations segmentally encasing an axon on some neurons (messages can’t travel though it)
  • Uses Saltatory conduction to make messages travel faster (nodes of Ranvier)
  • Ex of degenerative disease: Multiple Sclerosis
307
Q

Psychoactive Drug

A
  • A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

- Types: stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens

307
Q

Operant Behavior

A

-Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

307
Q

Intrinsic Motivation

A

-A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

307
Q

Temperament

A

-A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

308
Q

Coping

A

-Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

309
Q

Respondent Behavior

A

-Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

310
Q

Informed Consent

A
  • Tell people enough info for them to make a decision to participate or not
    - Know risks involved
    - Can drop out at any time
  • Ethics of Experimentation created by the APA
310
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

-A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

310
Q

Latent Learning

A

-Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

310
Q

Gender Typing

A

-The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

311
Q

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

A
  • Reinforcing a response only pert of the time
  • Results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
312
Q

Social Identity

A
  • The “we” aspect of our self-concept

- The part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships

313
Q

Latent Content

A

-According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as opposed to manifest content)

314
Q

Konrad Lorenz

A
  • Researched imprinting, especially with birds
  • What would ducklings do if he was the first living creature they observed? -Follow him around
  • Birds will imprint on other moving things such as animals of other species, boxes on wheels, and bouncy balls
  • Attachment is difficult to reverse
315
Q

Reuptake

A
  • Some neurotransmitters are not used, which is when re-uptake occurs
  • Takes un-used neurotransmitters and send them back to sending the neuron
315
Q

Emerging Adulthood

A

-For some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and dull independence and responsible adulthood

316
Q

Extinction

A
  • The diminishing of a conditioned response
  • occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditional stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
  • Operant conditioning: a response is no longer reinforced
318
Q

Jean Piaget

A
  • Created idea of schemas, assimilation vs accommodation, and the stages of development
  • French Psychologist: created intelligence tests
  • Intrigued by patterns of wrong answers within age groups
    • Led to him studying childhood cognition
319
Q

Clinical Psychology

A

-Branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

319
Q

Double-Blind Procedure

A
  • An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and staff are ignorant (Blind) about whether research participants have received treatment or the placebo
  • Commonly done during drug evaluations
319
Q

Withdrawal

A
  • -Discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
  • Causes of withdrawal: Physical dependence, psychological dependence
320
Q

Sensation

A
  • The experience of sensory stimulation
    • Smells, sights, sounds, tastes, touch, balance, pain
  • Raw data of experience (info we take in)
  • How we register energy from the body
321
Q

Perception

A
  • The process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory information
    • How we interpret sensory input
    • Organizes and assembles incoming information
  • Language= perceptual
322
Q

Bottom-Up Processing

A
  • Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
    • Look at something to figure out what it is
323
Q

Top-down Processing

A
  • Guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience/expectations
  • Ex: thinking a picture of dots is a dog because someone told you it was
324
Q

Selective Attention

A

-The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

325
Q

Inattentional Blindness

A

-Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

326
Q

Change Blindness

A

-Failing to notice changes in the environment

327
Q

Transduction

A
  • Transforming one type of energy/information into another
  • Ex: light energy into neural information
  • The transferring of stimulus energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
328
Q

Psychophysics

A
  • The study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli, such as intensity, and our psychological experiences of them
  • Acknowledges:
    • We are constantly bombarded with energy yet do not detect much of it
    • This energy needs to reach a certain level before we can detect it
329
Q

Absolute Threshold

A
  • The point at which sensation occurs (50% of the time)
  • The level of sensory stimulation needed for sensation to occur
  • Vary depending on environment and individual
  • Higher: higher amount of energy needed
  • Lower: lower amount of energy needed
330
Q

Signal Detection Theory

A
  • A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
  • Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
331
Q

Subliminal

A

-Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

332
Q

Priming

A

-The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

333
Q

Difference Threshold

A
  • Smallest change in stimulation that we can detect (50% of the time)
    • Just notable difference
  • We don’t just register that there is stimulation, we can detect change
  • Varies with the size of the stimulus
  • Amount needed to notice change depending on the size of the starting stimulus
    • Ex: weight
334
Q

Weber’s Law

A
  • Applies to difference threshold
  • 2 stimuli must vary by a constant percentage (rather than amount), to be perceived as different
    • Weight: 2%
    • Light: 8%
335
Q

Sensory Adaptation

A
  • Changes absolute threshold
    1. The gradual loss of attention to unneeded or unwanted sensory information (stops sending info to our brain/sensory neurons stop responding)
    • Ex: breathing
      2. An adjustment of the senses to the level of stimulation they are receiving
      3. Our diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus
    • Ex: odor in home
  • Adaptation occurs when there is an unchanging stimulus, except with vision
336
Q

Perceptual Set

A

-A mental predisposition to perceive one thing but not another

337
Q

Extrasensory Perception

A
  • ESP
  • The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input
  • Telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
338
Q

Parapsychology

A
  • The study of paranormal phenomena

- Includes ESP and psychokinesis

339
Q

Pupil/ Iris

A
  • Pupil: adjustable opening in front of the lens
    • Adjusts in response to light environment
    • Optimal light intake/ perfect amount of light to see
      • Dark out= larger pupil and vice versa
  • Iris: ring of muscle surrounding the pupil (colored)
    • Contracts and expands to make pupil larger or smaller
340
Q

Lens

A
  • Clear curved structure (looks like inflated contact lens)

- Focuses light onto the retina by changing its curvature

341
Q

Retina

A
  • Has photoreceptors (communicate light info to brain)
  • Where transduction occurs: light energy–> neural energy
    • Light does not go past the retina
  • Optic nerve brings info from photoreceptors to brain
342
Q

Accommodation (Visual)

A
  • Lens changes how much it is curved to achieve optimal focus
  • Relaxes w/ far stuff
  • Curved w/ near stuff
  • When light waves pass through lens, it reflects/flips upside down
    • The image shown to the retina is upside down, reassembled in the brain
343
Q

Rods

A
  • Cannot see color
  • Location: outer retina
    • Handle peripheral vision
  • Clarity: general outline/motion
  • Optimal environment: dim lighting/ low light levels
344
Q

Cones

A
  • Can see color
  • Location: inner/center retina (fovea)
  • Clarity: enable clarity of vision
  • Optimal environment: a lot of light
345
Q

Blind Spot

A
  • Located at the bottom center of the back of the eyeball w/o photoreceptors
  • Cannot pick up visual information
  • Where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
346
Q

Feature Detectors

A
  • Hobel and Wiesel
  • Occipital lobe neurons receive info from individual retinal ganglion cells
    • Feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific feature of stimulus (circles, angles, etc)
    • Break objects down and work together simultaneously
347
Q

Young-Helmholz Trichromatic Theory

A
  • Color occurs because of three different types of cones
    • Specialized in response to different wavelengths (correspond to different colors)
      • Short, medium, and long wavelengths
    • Team up to produce new/different colors (all colors)
    • Color combos: red, blue-violet, and green (how lights mix to form these colors)
348
Q

Opponent-Process Theory

A
  • Trichromatic= inadequate ( we shouldn’t be able to see certain colors if we don’t have certain cones)
  • Ewald Hering
    1. Cones pick up color and produce info
    2. Opposing retinal processes enable color vision (will tell u colors are one color or opposite)
    • Red or green, yellow or blue, black or white
349
Q

Depth Perception

A
  • The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional
  • Allows us to judge distance
350
Q

Visual Cliff

A

-A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

351
Q

Binocular Cues

A
  • Uses 2 eyes to see depth
    • Retinal disparity
      • Retinas receive different information from each other
      • Lays one retina’s image on top of the other
      • The closer to your face, the greater retinal disparity and vice versa
      • Compares viewpoints to understand depth
        • More different= closer
        • More similar= farther away
    • Convergence
      • Measures the muscle strain in eyes
      • The more eyes strain, closer it is
      • Relaxed eye= further away
352
Q

Monocular Cues

A
  • Rely on use of one eye
    1. Relative height
    • Compares height on retina with visuals
      • Higher up= further away
      • Lower= closer
        1. Relative size
    • Takes up less size on retina= further away
    • More size= closer
      1. Linear perspective
    • Parallel lines tend to converge in the distance at vanishing point
    • Closer lines= further away and vice versa
      1. Interposition
    • Look at how things are layered
    • Can see full image= closer
    • Behind things= further away
353
Q

Phi Phenomenon

A

-An illusion of movement when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

354
Q

Perceptual Constancy

A

-Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and colors) even as illumination and retinal images change

355
Q

Color Constancy

A

-Perceiving familiar objects as having constant colors, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

356
Q

Audition

A

-The sense or act of hearing

357
Q

Cochlea

A
  • Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
  • Fluid vibrates in response to vibration, which activates nerve impulses
  • Inner lining= basilar membrane
    • As fluid moves, membrane moves back and forth
    • Lined with hair cells, and movement of this membrane activates hair cells
358
Q

Inner Ear

A
  • The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
359
Q

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

A
  • Uses Cochlear Implants
  • Hearing loss causes by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves
  • Also called nerve deafness
360
Q

Conduction Hearing Loss

A

-Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

361
Q

Cochlear Implant

A

-A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

362
Q

Place Theory

A
  • Helmholtz
  • Different places activated along basilar membrane (different frequencies activated)
  • Good for determining high pitch, not low pitch
  • High frequencies: large vibrations near beginning of membrane
  • Low frequencies: large vibrations near the end of the basilar membrane
363
Q

Frequency Theory

A
  • Brain monitors rate of neural impulses traveling up auditory nerve
  • Good for low pitch, not for high pitch
  • Frequencies activate cells at different rates, brain can monitor this and figure out what frequency it is
364
Q

Gate-Control Theory

A
  • The theory that the spinal chord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or pass on to the brain
  • The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers
  • Closed by activity in large fivers or by information coming from the brain
365
Q

Kinesthesis

A
  • The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
    • Disruption= disembodied
366
Q

Vestibular Sense

A
  • The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
    • Position of head
  • Semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
    • Movement of fluid communicated to cerebellum
    • Dizziness
367
Q

Sensory Interaction

A

-The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste

368
Q

Embodied Cognition

A

-In psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states of cognitive preferences and judgements

369
Q

Figure and Ground

A

-You choose something to focus on (figure) and what is in the background (ground)

370
Q

Grouping- Proximity

A

-Things that are close together we group together (space)

371
Q

Grouping- Continuity

A
  • We perceive smooth, continuous patterns

- Eye takes up path of least resistance

372
Q

Grouping- Closure

A

-Tendency to fill in missing or incomplete formation

373
Q

Grouping-Similarity

A

-Tendency to group similar things together

374
Q

Grouping-Connectedness

A
  • Things which are physically linked together we group together
    • Overrides other tendencies of grouping

AP Psychology (Class) (21 decks)

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