Mid-Year Exam (Units 1,2,3,4,5,6,9) Flashcards
Mirror Neurons
- Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
- The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
- A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms
- In response to light, causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
Self-control
-The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
Mary Ainsworth
- Did “strange situation” experiment to study attachment types (secure vs insecure)
- 60% of infants display secure attachment
- Observed mother-infant pairs whose child was 6 months old, then observed at 1 year in strange situation
Assimulation
-Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Y Chromosome
- The sex chromosome found only in males
- When paired with an X chromosome from the mother produces a male child
Generalization
-The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
Naturalistic Observation
- Observation of people or animals in their natural environments without interference from observer
- Behavior is not artificial (how they behavior in real world situations)
Carl Rogers
- First humanistic psychologist
- Behaviorism and Freudian psych= too limiting
- Drew attention to ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit potential growth, and the importance of having our needs of love and acceptance satisfied
Functionalism
- Early school of thought promoted by William James (founder) and Charles Darwin
- Explored how mental and behavioral processes function
- How they enable the organism to flourish, adapt, and survive
Epigenetics
-The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
Random Assignment
- Seen in experimentation
- How we allocate people to control or experimental group
- Done to avoid two drastically different groups (therefore we can predict if differences are from variables)
Neurotransmitters
- Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
- When released by a sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron
- influence whether a neuron will generate a neural impulse
Zygote
- The fertilized egg
- Enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
Sensorimotor Stage
- Piaget’s Theory
- The stage from birth to about 2 years
- Infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activites
Alcohol Use Disorder
- Alcoholism
- Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
Control Group
- Normal group
- Used as comparison to experimental group (Nothing done to it)
Law of Effect
-Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Fetus
-The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
AIDS
- A life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
- Depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
Testing Effect
- Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
- Sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
Maturation
-Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
Attachment
- An emotional tie with another person
- Shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
Object Permanence
- The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
- Sensorimotor Stage
Psychology
- The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- Behavior: anything an organism does (yelling, smiling, laughing)
- Mental processes: Internal (sensations, thoughts, dreams)
Cognitive Psychology
-The Scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
MRI
- Shows what the brain looks like (soft tissue only)
- Does not show what it is doing/function
Conditioned Reinforcer
- A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
- also know as a secondary reinforcer
Margaret Harlow
- Bred monkeys for attachment experimentation w/ husband
* Info on his card*
Peripheral Nervous System
- Carry info to and from Central Nervous System
- Made up of sensory (Afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons
- Carries out commands from CNS
Higher-order learning
- A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
- Ex: an animal that have leaned that a tone predicts food night then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone
- Second-order conditioning
Gender role
-A set of expected behaviors for males or for females
Natural Selection
- The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to the succeeding generations
- Created by Charles Darwin (believed it also shaped behaviors as well as bodies)
John Garcia
- Studied taste aversion
- Why do we avoid foods?
- Usually taste
- Challenged the idea that all associations can be learned equally well
- Radiation made rats not want to drink the water in their radiation chambers
- Rats avoided tastes, sounds, or other sensations when associated with nausea
- Elected to the National Academy of Sciences
- APA’s Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award
Conditioned Stimulus
-In classical conditioning , an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response
Humanistic Psychology
-A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
Psychometrics
-The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Insight
-A sudden realization of a problem’s solution
Critical period
-An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
Hallucinations
-False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
Positive Pyschology
- The scientific study of human functioning
- Has the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive
Imprinting
-The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period
Occipital Lobe
- Very important!!
- Complex visual processing
Limbic System
- Emotion(fear, aggression, happiness), memory
- Mammalian brain (pets: dogs, cats)
- Stuck between straight survival and advanced thinking)
Edward Thorndike
- Puzzle boxes
- Placed cats inside and they would learn from behavior, get better at solving once placed in many time
- Built foundation for operant conditioning
- Known for his studies on if animals could learn based on consequences
Intimacy
- In Erikson’s theory
- The ability to form close, loving relationships
- A primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
Brainstem
- Oldest part of the brain
- Innermost part
- Survival functions
- Keeps you alive (breathing, heart beating)
- No complex thought
- Part of the reptilian brain (snakes)
- Where info streams into the brain
- Cross-wiring point
Reinforcement Schedule
-A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
Schema
-A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Robert Rescorla
- Said animals can learn the predictability of events
- If a shock was preceded by a tone which is preceded by a light, animals would be afraid of the tone because they knew the shock was coming (better predictor than light)
Evolutionary Psychology
- The study of the evolution of behavior and mind
- Uses principles of natural selection
Replication
- repeating the essence of a research study
- usually with different participants in different situations
- To see whether the basic finding extends to other participants or circumstances
Motor (Efferent) Neurons
- Efferent
- Sends responses from brain and spinal chord to tissues and organs
Testosterone
- The most important of the male sex hormones
- Both males and female have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development o the male sex characteristics during puberty
Harry Harlow
- Attachment theorist
- Studied what causes attachment and what makes it so strong
- Created an experiment to show why we attach
- For food or comfort?
- Monkey spent 17 to 18 hours with comfy mother, 1 with feeding mother (contact comfort= more important)
- When scared, baby went to cloth mother
NREM Sleep
- Non-rapid eye movement sleep
- Encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
Accomodation
-Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorperate new information
Dream
- A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind
- notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamers delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it
Nerves
-Bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
Fixed Ratio Schedule
-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Formal Operational Stage
- Piaget’s theory
- Beginning at 12
- people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Eric Erikson
- Created the stages of social development
- Each stage of life is associated with a psychosocial task that needs resolution
Discrimination
-In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
Reflex
-A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
Experimental Psychology
-The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
Psychiatry
- A branch of medicine dealing with psychology disorders
- Practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
Amygdala
- -Fear and aggression center
- Anxiety (active during anxiety)
- Experience, express, interpret (in other people)
- Memory (cements horrific experience in memory)
- Ex: PTSD
Narcolepsy
- a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks
- The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
Operational Definition
- Carefully worded definition of your variables in a research study
- Ex: when talking about how stress relates to sleep, you have to define quantities of sleep
X Chromosome
- The sex chromosome found in both men and women
- Females have two , males have one
- One from each parent produces a female child
Experimental Group
-Manipulated group (tweaked)
Teratogens
- “monster maker”
- Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Menopause
- The time of natural cessation of menstruation
- Refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
Spontaneous Recovery
-The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Paul Broca
- French Physician
- Discovered Broca’s area in frontal lobe: production of speech
Dependent Variable
- Happens because of the independent variable
- Measured
Axon
- Neuron extension
- Sends message across the neuron through its branches (axon terminals) to other neurons or muscles/glands
- Electro-impulse
Puberty
-The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Theory
-An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Community Psychology
- A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments
- how social institutions affect individuals and groups
Statistical Significance
- A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
- Lower than 5% is insignificant
Albert Bandura
- Bobo doll experiment
- Stated that children can learn from aggression
- Kids watching aggression video were more likely to use objects in room in aggressive/creative ways
- Disproved catharsis: viewing aggressive model releases a person’s aggression
- We imitate people we:
- Believe are successful
- Admire
- Are similar to
THC
- The major active ingredient in marijuana
- Triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
Hypothalamus
- -Bodily maintenance
- Homeostasis
- Drives (hunger, thirst)
- Controls ES (endocrine system, works with pituitary gland)
- Reward center
- Sends out feel-good messages when you maintain homeostasis
- Olas and Milner
- Hooked rat’s part up to electrodes
- Stimulated it and the rat kept wanting it stimulated
PET Scan
- Uses radioactive glucose to see how the brain is functioning
- Sees when the glucose is being consumed
- Allows us to see what parts of the brain are the most active (where the most glucose is being consumed)
Alpha Waves
-The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Basic Research
- Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
- Ex: Developmental, educational, personality, etc.
Longitudinal Study
-Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time
Variable Ratio Schedule
-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Amphetamines
-Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
Culture
- The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people
- Transmitted from one generation to the next
Critical Thinking
- Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
- Examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
Measures of Central Tendency
- Mode: most frequently occurring score(s)
- Mean: average
- Median: middle score
Carol Gilligan
- Androcentric
- Did male research
- Ethics of Caring= female
- Ethics of Justice= males
- Women are less concerned with being viewed as an individual, and more with making connections
- Females= more interdependent than males
- Boys form larger groups in children’s play & more competitive play
- Girls= smaller groups, less competitive, more
Adolescence
-The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
Endocrine System
- The body’s “slow” chemical communication system
- set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
- Reason why it is slow
- influences growth, reproduction, metabolism, mood
- works hand-in-hand with nervous system
Case Study
- Tries to find something universal (Not good at it)
- Looks at 1 individual, group or event IN DEPTH
- Uses rare or abnormal cases
- Generates ideas for future research
- Cannot determine cause (No control of variables)
- Can’t generalize to a larger population
Sampling Bias
-A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Cerebral Cortex
- Higher thought
- Humans only
- Outer Covering of the brain (thin)
- Where synaptic connections happen, where the neurons communicate
Temporal Lobe
- Located near temples, extends past ears
- Where auditory processing happens
- Maintains balance and equilibrium
- Handles language comprehension
Environment
–Every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
Glial Cells
- -Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
- May also play a role in learning and thinking
Night Terrors
- A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified
- Unlike nightmares, they NREM-3 sleep with 2 to 3 hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
Corpus Callosum
- -Connect the two hemispheres
- How the two hemispheres communicate
- Allows information to be processes by both sides of the brain
- Made up of a band of neural fibers
Unconditioned Response
-In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (food)
Insomnia
-Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Social Psychology
-The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
BF Skinner
- Modern behaviorist (controversial)
- studied operant conditioning using an operant chamber
- Consequences shape behavior
- Worked with animals to teach them to do “non animal” type things
Barbiturates
-Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
G Stanley Hall
- First president of the APA
- Storm vs Stress
- established the first formal United States psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University
Cerebellum
- -“Little brain” located at the rear of the brainstem
- Coordinates voluntary movement (somatic)
- Balance and coordination
- Impacted by alcohol
Cocaine
-A powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
Skewed Distribution
-A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Molecular genetics
-The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
Correlation
- Finds the relationship between variables
- Tells us how strong the relationship and what direction
- Types:
- Positive (direct relationship) and Negative (inverse relationship)
Emotion-Focused Coping
-Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction
Survey
- Asks a lot of people a good amount of questions
- A random sample of population that represents the whole (reflect wider population)
Illusory Correlation
-The perception of a relationship where none exists
Michael Gazzaniga
- Asked people w/ split brain to stare at a dot while he flashed HEART on the screen
- Would say they saw ART (seen with right visual field), but when asked to point, pointed with their left hand at HE
- Concluded left hemisphere is interpreter
Depressants
-Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Fixed Interval Schedule
-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Somatosensory Cortex
- Areas of the front of the parietal lobes
- Register and process body touch and movement sensations
Discriminative Stimulus
-In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association wth reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
Conditioned Response
-In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
Cognitive Map
- A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
- Ex: rats in maze act as if they have learned it
Sympathetic Nervous System
- Works with parasympathetic
- Responds to stressors
- Diverts energy away from areas that don’t need it
- Fight or flight response (adrenaline)
- Ex: Sweating, raised heart rate
- Spends energy
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
- Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking
- In severe cases,signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
Educational Psychology
-The study of how psychological processes affect and enhance learning and teaching
Transgender
-An umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
Post-Hypnotic Suggestion
-A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
Methamphetamine
- A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
- Over time appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
Range
- Measure of Variation
- Highest score minus lowest score
Independent Variable
- Changed/ manipulated
- Used on experimental group
Nature-Nurture Issue
- The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experiences make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
- Today, science sees traits and behaviors arising from interaction of nature and nurture
Threshold
-The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Concrete Operational Stage
- Piaget’s theory
- Stage of cognitive development (starting at 6/7 to 11)
- children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Self-concept
-All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question “who am I”
Gender
-The socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female
Lawrence Kohlberg
- Created the stages of moral reasoning by asking people of all ages moral dilemmas
- Work reflected individualistic culture and emphasized thinking over acting
- Preconventional, conventional, postconventional form a moral ladder (begin at the bottom rung and ascend)
Biopsychosocial Approach
-An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Human Factors Psychology
- an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact
- how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
Ernest Hilgard
- Famed researcher
- Believed that hypnosis involved social influence and but also the dissociation
- Vivid form of everyday mind-splits
- When people are hypnotized to put arm in ice bath, they are separated from the pain (cold but not painful)
Population
- All those in a group being studied
- From which samples may be drawn (except in natural studies)
- Does not refer to a country’s whole population
Debriefing
- Ethics of Experimentation created by the APA
- At the end of experiment
- Made aware of deception/ purpose of experiment
CT Scan
-series of X-Ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure
Synapse
-The junction between the axon terminals of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the cell body of the receiving neuron
SQ3R
-Study method incorporating 5 steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review
Hormones
- Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream (slow)
- Help with growth and development
- Changes occur in a longer period of time (hormones build up, which causes change)
Thalamus
- -Sensory Switchboard
- Relays sense info to high brain destination for processing
- Vision, taste, hearing, balance
- All senses except for smell
- Relays sense info to high brain destination for processing
Descriptive Statistics
- Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups
- Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
Inferential Statistics
- Numerical data that allows one to generalize
- Infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Autonomic Nervous System
- Autopilot
- Regulates things you do automatically (don’t have to think about it)
- Respiration, blinking, heart beating
- Working of inner glands and organs
Social Clock
-The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Nervous System
-The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
Cognitive learning
-The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Variable Interval Schedule
-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Cognition
-All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Structuralism
- Introduced by Edward Bradford Titchener at Cornell University
- Early school of psychology promoted by Wundt and Titchener
- Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Hypnosis
-A social interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person’s (the hypnotist’s) suggestions that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Aggression
-Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
Plasticity
–The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Tolerance
- -Diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug
- Requires the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
- Caffeine
Extrinsic Motivation
-A desire to perform a belabor to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Genes
- -The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
- Segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
Role
-A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
Central Nervous System
- Makes decisions within the body
- Messages end up or organize here (processes info)
- Parts: Brain and Spinal Chord (Made up of Interneurons)
Theory of Mind
- People’s ideas about their own and other’s mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
- PreOperational Stage
Wilhelm Wundt
- Father of Psychology
- Professor at Germany’s University of Leipzig (first psych lab)
- Did experiments using introspection (focusing on sensations, images, and feelings)
- Measured time between when a ball hit a platform and the person heard it and hit a telegraph key
Unconditioned Stimulus
- In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers a response (UR)
- Food
Consciousness
- -Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
- Studied in cognitive neuroscience
- Evolutionary psychologists think it has a reproductive advantage
- Helps us act in our long-term interests instead of seeking short-term pleasure and avoiding pain
- Promotes survival:
- Anticipates how we seem to others & reads their minds
Social Learning Theory
-The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Confounding Variable
-A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
Somatic Nervous System
- Voluntary control of skeletal muscles (acetylcholine)
- Made up of motor neurons
Dual Processing
- -Two-Track mind
- The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
- Ex: when you encounter a person
- Aware or conscious of person
- You know it is a person through unconscious processing
- Low Road vs. High Road
- Conscious deliberate vs. unconscious automatic
Edward Tolman
- Further developed latent learning
- Created the idea of the cognitive map
- Came from studying rats in mazes who learned to navigate it without reward
Egocentrism
- Piaget’s theory
- A child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view (PreOperational Stage)
Validity
-The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Split Brain (Surgery)
-A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus Callosum) connecting them
Neuron
- A nerve cell
- The basic building block of the nervous system
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
-The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in work places
Heritability
- The portion of variation among individuals that we can contribute to genes
- may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied
Lesion
- -Tissue destruction
- a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
- A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Works with sympathetic
- Maintains homeostasis
- Long-term survival
- Conserves energy
- Calms you back down
Psychodynamic Psychology
- A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior
- Uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
Mutation
-A random error in gene replication that leads to a change
Preoperational Stage
- Piaget’s theory
- Stage from 2 to 6/7 years
- Child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
Learned Helplessness
-The helplessness and passive resignation an animal or man learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
Normal Curve
- A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve
- Describes the distribution of many types of data
- most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it)
- Fewer near the extremes
Chromosomes
-Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
Secondary Sex Characteristics
-Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
Cognitive Neuroscience
-The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language)
Action Potential
- Sending a message/ a neural impulse
- A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
- Positive ions enter the axon
- Depolarization (mix of positive and negative ions)
- Leads to a chain reaction of depolarization
Hallucinogens
-psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
Ivan Pavlov
- Father of classical conditioning
- Discovered it and came up with terminology
- Physiologist: anatomy and functioning of canine body
- Observed odd patterns of salivation in dogs
- Began experimentation
Near-Death Experience
- An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (similar to cardiac arrest)
- Often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
All-or-None Principle/Response
- Neurons fire according to this principle
- It will either fire with a full-strength response or it won’t
- Once action potential happens, you cannot stop it
Frontal Lobe
- -Concentration
- Emotional regulation
- Personality (Makes you unique)
- Between frontal and parietal lobe is the motor cortex
- Goal-directed behavior
- Complex problem solving
Dissociation
-A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
Menarche
-The first menstrual period
Internal Locus of Control
-The perception that you control your own fate
Habituation
-An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
Motor Cortex
- Controls voluntary movements (somatic)
- Located in the rear of the frontal lobes
Random Sample
- Used w/ survey research method
- everyone has equal chance of being selected (represents the larger population
Behaviorism
- Early school of psychology
- The view that psychology:
- Should be an objective science
- Studies behavior without reference to mental processes
- Most psychologists agree with 1, but not 2
- Behaviorists: John B Watson & B.F Skinner (more important)
Reticular Formation
- -Basic Filter (filters out sounds you aren’t listening to etc.)
- Alertness and arousal
- Attentional filter
- Scientists got rid of this in cats and they had comas
Interneurons
- Process Stimuli and create response
- Located in brain and spinal chord
Substance Use Disorder
-Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
Cross-sectional study
-A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
William James
- philosopher, psychologist, functionalist (founder)
- wrote one of the first introductory psychology texts, Principles of Psychology
- Taught Mary Whiton Calkins
- Inspired by Darwin
Hindsight Bias
- The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you would have foreseen it
- Leads us to overestimate our intuition
Agonist
- Class of Chemicals
- Mimics a neurotransmitter and does the same thing as it
- Mimics structure of neurotransmitter
- A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
Antagonist
- Blocks function of neurotransmitter
- Mimics the structure of a neurotransmitter
- A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
Identical Twins
- Monozygotic twins
- Twins who developed from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
Mary Whiton Calkins
- Taught by James at Harvard
- Denied a Ph.D in psychology even though she met all the requirements
- APA’s first female president and memory researcher
Carl Wernicke
- German investigator
- Discovered Wernicke’s area in temporal lobe :understanding of speech
Continuous reinforcement
-Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Observational Learning
- Learning by observing others
- Also called social learning
Adrenal Glands
- Made up of both the Adrenal Cortex and Adrenal Medulla
- Medulla
- Produces nonessential hormones
- Ex. Adrenaline
- Reacts to stress
- Produces nonessential hormones
- Adrenal Cortex
- Produces cortisol
- Regulates stress and metabolism - Produces Aldosterone
- Controls blood pressure
- Produces cortisol
- Medulla
- Issues
- Cushing’s Syndrome- too much cortisol
- Lose weight in extremities but gain it in your midsection, neck, and face
- Cushing’s Syndrome- too much cortisol
Levels of Analysis
-The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
Fraternal Twins
- Dizygotic Twins
- Twins who developed from separate fertilized eggs
- They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
Interaction
-The interplay that occur when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
Standard Deviation
- Measure of Variation
- A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
Sleep Apnea
-A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessation in breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
Endorphins
- “Morphine within”
- Natural opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain-control & pleasure
Embryo
-The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
Sigmund Freud
- Controversial personality theorist
- Emphasized the ways emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious thought processes affect our behavior
- Father of the Psychoanalytic School of Psychology
- divided the mind into the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind
Lev Vygotsky
- Russian developmental psychologist
- Child’s mind grows through interaction with social environment
- Children internalize culture’s language and rely on inner speech
- zone of proximal development: zone of what a child can do with help
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
- afferent
- take info from external environment or tissues and organs to central nervous system
Shaping
-An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Delta Waves
-The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
Charles Darwin
- Believed natural selection shapes behavior as well as bodies
- Wrote “On The Origin of Species”
- Created natural selection
Sexual Orientation
-An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation)
Biofeedback
-A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
Associative learning
- Learning that certain events occur together
- The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning)
Applied Research
-Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
EEG
- electroencephalogram
- Gives insight on how the brain is functioning by placing electrodes on the skin
- Doesn’t give specific info, only overall
Behavior Genetics
–The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
REM Rebound
- The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
- Created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep
Basic Trust
- According to Eric Erikson
- A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy
- Said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Refractory Period
- After action potential
- A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired (getting ready to fire again)
- Unable to do so for a bit of time
Acquisition
- In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
- Operant conditioning: the strengthening of a reinforced response
Addiction
-Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
External Locus of Control
-The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate
Conservation
-The principle (part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Opiates
- Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin
- Depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
Ecstasy (MDMA)
- A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen
- Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and long-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
Hypothesis
-A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Sleep
- Period, natural loss of consciousness
- Distinct from loss of consciousness resulting a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Empiricism
- The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
- Built off of Bacon’s and Locke’s ideas
Placebo/ Placebo Effect
- -“Shall I please”
- Experimental results caused by expectations alone
- Any affect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition (recipient assumes is an active ingredient)
Parietal Lobe
- -Adjacent to frontal lobes
- Has sensory cortex (registers sensory input- touch, body sensations)
Genome
- The complete instructions for making an organism
- Consists of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes
Nicotine
-A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
FMRI
- Traces oxygen flow in the brain (which reveals blood flow)
- Reveals brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans
- Show brain function as well as structure
Primary Sex Characteristics
-The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
-A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
Dorothea Dix
- Led the way to humane treatment of those with psychological disorders
- Therapy
Behavioral Psychology
-The scientific study of observable behavior, and it’s explanation by principles of learning
Biological Psychology
- The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
- Ex: behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists
Margaret Floy Washburn
- 1st woman to receive a psychology Ph.D
- Wrote “the animal mind”
- 2nd female APA president
- Not allowed to join organization of experimental psychologists
Pituitary Gland
- -Master Gland
- Major Function: Controls growth and development and the functioning of other endocrine glands
- Hormones: Growth hormone, Puberty hormones, Prolactin, and Adrenocorticotropic
- Potential issues:
- Benign growths called “adenoma”
- stops hormone production or overproduces hormones
Identity
- Our sense of self
- According to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga
- Psychologists
- Divided the brain by splitting the corpus callosum in cats and monkeys–> no bad effects
- Set information to each eye to see how we process information in each hemisphere since information cannot be communicated in between
Stimulants
- Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine)
- excite neural activity and speed up body functions
Primary Reinforcer
-An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Prosocial Behavior
- Positive, constructive, helpful behavior
- Opposite of antisocial behavior
Reinforcement
-In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Modeling
-The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Medulla
- -Breathing
- Heart rate
- Crossover point
- “Medic” of your brain
Stranger Anxiety
- The fear of strangers that infants commonly display
- Beginning 8 months of age
- Sensorimotor stage
Social-Cultural Psychology
-The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
Neutral Stimulus
-In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Operant Chamber
- In operant conditioning research
- A chamber (Skinner box) containing a bar or key that animals can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
- Attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Neurogenesis
-The formation of new neurons
Problem-Focused Coping
-Attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way interact with that stressor
LSD
- A powerful hallucinogenic drug
- Also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)
REM Sleep
- Rapid eye movement sleep
- A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
- Also known as paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed (except minor twitches) but other body systems are active
Learning
-The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Positive Reinforcement
- Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers
- Positive reinforcer: any stimulus that when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Diane Baumrind
- Studied types of parenting styles and which one works best (authoritative)
- Parenting styles: Too hard, too soft, and just right
- Authoritative: child has good self esteem, self-reliant, and socially competent
- Authoritarian: low self-esteem, poor social skills
- Permissive: aggressive and immature
John B Watson
- Worked with Rosalie Rayner
- Demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby known as “Little Albert” and made him fear a white rat
- father of behaviorism
- dismissed introspection
- suggested psychology study how people respond to stimuli (behavior) rather than inner thoughts, feelings, and motives
- Redefine psychology as the “the scientific study of observable behavior”
Circadian Rhythm
- The biological clock
- Regular bodily rhythms (temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
Punishment
-An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
Gender Identity
-Our sense of being male or female
Personality Psychology
-The study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Scatterplot
- Graphed cluster of dots
- represents the values of two variables
- Slope suggests the direction of the relationship
- Scatter suggests strength of correlation
Association Areas
- Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions
- Involved in higher mental functions
- learning, thinking remembering, speaking
- Link sensory input w/ stored memories
Stimulus
-Any event or situation that evokes a response
Correlational Coefficient
- Correlation: measure of the extent to which two variables change together (how well either variable predicts the other)
- A statistical index between two variables
- Between -1 and 1
- Perfect correlation (1 or -1)
Manifest Content
-According to Freud, the remembered story-line of a dream (as distinct from latent or hidden content)
Classical Conditioning
-A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Negative Reinforcement
- Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
- Negative reinforcer: any stimulus that , when removed after a response, strengthens the response
Developmental Psychology
-A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout a lifespan
Counseling Psychology
- A branch of psychology that assists people with living and achieving a greater well-being
- often related to school, work, or marriage
Experiment
- -Pro:Only research method that can tell us causation(variables are controlled)
- Con: Situation is artificial, results may not generalize to the real world
- Things can be tweeked
- Two groups in experimentation: control group and experimental group
Dendrites
- Branch Extensions of the neuron
- Pick up information/ receive messages
- Conduct impulses towards the cell body
- Absorb neurotransmitters
Myelin Sheath
- Fat insulations segmentally encasing an axon on some neurons (messages can’t travel though it)
- Uses Saltatory conduction to make messages travel faster (nodes of Ranvier)
- Ex of degenerative disease: Multiple Sclerosis
Psychoactive Drug
- A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
- Types: stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens
Operant Behavior
-Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
Intrinsic Motivation
-A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
Temperament
-A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
Coping
-Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
Respondent Behavior
-Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Informed Consent
- Tell people enough info for them to make a decision to participate or not
- Know risks involved
- Can drop out at any time - Ethics of Experimentation created by the APA
Operant Conditioning
-A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Latent Learning
-Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Gender Typing
-The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
- Reinforcing a response only pert of the time
- Results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Social Identity
- The “we” aspect of our self-concept
- The part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships
Latent Content
-According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as opposed to manifest content)
Konrad Lorenz
- Researched imprinting, especially with birds
- What would ducklings do if he was the first living creature they observed? -Follow him around
- Birds will imprint on other moving things such as animals of other species, boxes on wheels, and bouncy balls
- Attachment is difficult to reverse
Reuptake
- Some neurotransmitters are not used, which is when re-uptake occurs
- Takes un-used neurotransmitters and send them back to sending the neuron
Emerging Adulthood
-For some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and dull independence and responsible adulthood
Extinction
- The diminishing of a conditioned response
- occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditional stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
- Operant conditioning: a response is no longer reinforced
Jean Piaget
- Created idea of schemas, assimilation vs accommodation, and the stages of development
- French Psychologist: created intelligence tests
- Intrigued by patterns of wrong answers within age groups
- Led to him studying childhood cognition
Clinical Psychology
-Branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Double-Blind Procedure
- An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and staff are ignorant (Blind) about whether research participants have received treatment or the placebo
- Commonly done during drug evaluations
Withdrawal
- -Discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
- Causes of withdrawal: Physical dependence, psychological dependence
Sensation
- The experience of sensory stimulation
- Smells, sights, sounds, tastes, touch, balance, pain
- Raw data of experience (info we take in)
- How we register energy from the body
Perception
- The process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory information
- How we interpret sensory input
- Organizes and assembles incoming information
- Language= perceptual
Bottom-Up Processing
- Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
- Look at something to figure out what it is
Top-down Processing
- Guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience/expectations
- Ex: thinking a picture of dots is a dog because someone told you it was
Selective Attention
-The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Inattentional Blindness
-Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Change Blindness
-Failing to notice changes in the environment
Transduction
- Transforming one type of energy/information into another
- Ex: light energy into neural information
- The transferring of stimulus energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
Psychophysics
- The study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli, such as intensity, and our psychological experiences of them
- Acknowledges:
- We are constantly bombarded with energy yet do not detect much of it
- This energy needs to reach a certain level before we can detect it
Absolute Threshold
- The point at which sensation occurs (50% of the time)
- The level of sensory stimulation needed for sensation to occur
- Vary depending on environment and individual
- Higher: higher amount of energy needed
- Lower: lower amount of energy needed
Signal Detection Theory
- A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
- Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
Subliminal
-Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Priming
-The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
Difference Threshold
- Smallest change in stimulation that we can detect (50% of the time)
- Just notable difference
- We don’t just register that there is stimulation, we can detect change
- Varies with the size of the stimulus
- Amount needed to notice change depending on the size of the starting stimulus
- Ex: weight
Weber’s Law
- Applies to difference threshold
- 2 stimuli must vary by a constant percentage (rather than amount), to be perceived as different
- Weight: 2%
- Light: 8%
Sensory Adaptation
- Changes absolute threshold
1. The gradual loss of attention to unneeded or unwanted sensory information (stops sending info to our brain/sensory neurons stop responding)- Ex: breathing
2. An adjustment of the senses to the level of stimulation they are receiving
3. Our diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus - Ex: odor in home
- Ex: breathing
- Adaptation occurs when there is an unchanging stimulus, except with vision
Perceptual Set
-A mental predisposition to perceive one thing but not another
Extrasensory Perception
- ESP
- The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input
- Telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
Parapsychology
- The study of paranormal phenomena
- Includes ESP and psychokinesis
Pupil/ Iris
- Pupil: adjustable opening in front of the lens
- Adjusts in response to light environment
- Optimal light intake/ perfect amount of light to see
- Dark out= larger pupil and vice versa
- Iris: ring of muscle surrounding the pupil (colored)
- Contracts and expands to make pupil larger or smaller
Lens
- Clear curved structure (looks like inflated contact lens)
- Focuses light onto the retina by changing its curvature
Retina
- Has photoreceptors (communicate light info to brain)
- Where transduction occurs: light energy–> neural energy
- Light does not go past the retina
- Optic nerve brings info from photoreceptors to brain
Accommodation (Visual)
- Lens changes how much it is curved to achieve optimal focus
- Relaxes w/ far stuff
- Curved w/ near stuff
- When light waves pass through lens, it reflects/flips upside down
- The image shown to the retina is upside down, reassembled in the brain
Rods
- Cannot see color
- Location: outer retina
- Handle peripheral vision
- Clarity: general outline/motion
- Optimal environment: dim lighting/ low light levels
Cones
- Can see color
- Location: inner/center retina (fovea)
- Clarity: enable clarity of vision
- Optimal environment: a lot of light
Blind Spot
- Located at the bottom center of the back of the eyeball w/o photoreceptors
- Cannot pick up visual information
- Where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
Feature Detectors
- Hobel and Wiesel
- Occipital lobe neurons receive info from individual retinal ganglion cells
- Feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific feature of stimulus (circles, angles, etc)
- Break objects down and work together simultaneously
Young-Helmholz Trichromatic Theory
- Color occurs because of three different types of cones
- Specialized in response to different wavelengths (correspond to different colors)
- Short, medium, and long wavelengths
- Team up to produce new/different colors (all colors)
- Color combos: red, blue-violet, and green (how lights mix to form these colors)
- Specialized in response to different wavelengths (correspond to different colors)
Opponent-Process Theory
- Trichromatic= inadequate ( we shouldn’t be able to see certain colors if we don’t have certain cones)
- Ewald Hering
1. Cones pick up color and produce info
2. Opposing retinal processes enable color vision (will tell u colors are one color or opposite)- Red or green, yellow or blue, black or white
Depth Perception
- The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional
- Allows us to judge distance
Visual Cliff
-A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
Binocular Cues
- Uses 2 eyes to see depth
- Retinal disparity
- Retinas receive different information from each other
- Lays one retina’s image on top of the other
- The closer to your face, the greater retinal disparity and vice versa
- Compares viewpoints to understand depth
- More different= closer
- More similar= farther away
- Convergence
- Measures the muscle strain in eyes
- The more eyes strain, closer it is
- Relaxed eye= further away
- Retinal disparity
Monocular Cues
- Rely on use of one eye
1. Relative height- Compares height on retina with visuals
- Higher up= further away
- Lower= closer
- Relative size
- Takes up less size on retina= further away
- More size= closer
- Linear perspective
- Parallel lines tend to converge in the distance at vanishing point
- Closer lines= further away and vice versa
- Interposition
- Look at how things are layered
- Can see full image= closer
- Behind things= further away
- Compares height on retina with visuals
Phi Phenomenon
-An illusion of movement when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
Perceptual Constancy
-Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and colors) even as illumination and retinal images change
Color Constancy
-Perceiving familiar objects as having constant colors, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
Audition
-The sense or act of hearing
Cochlea
- Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
- Fluid vibrates in response to vibration, which activates nerve impulses
- Inner lining= basilar membrane
- As fluid moves, membrane moves back and forth
- Lined with hair cells, and movement of this membrane activates hair cells
Inner Ear
- The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
- Uses Cochlear Implants
- Hearing loss causes by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves
- Also called nerve deafness
Conduction Hearing Loss
-Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Cochlear Implant
-A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
Place Theory
- Helmholtz
- Different places activated along basilar membrane (different frequencies activated)
- Good for determining high pitch, not low pitch
- High frequencies: large vibrations near beginning of membrane
- Low frequencies: large vibrations near the end of the basilar membrane
Frequency Theory
- Brain monitors rate of neural impulses traveling up auditory nerve
- Good for low pitch, not for high pitch
- Frequencies activate cells at different rates, brain can monitor this and figure out what frequency it is
Gate-Control Theory
- The theory that the spinal chord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or pass on to the brain
- The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers
- Closed by activity in large fivers or by information coming from the brain
Kinesthesis
- The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
- Disruption= disembodied
Vestibular Sense
- The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
- Position of head
- Semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
- Movement of fluid communicated to cerebellum
- Dizziness
Sensory Interaction
-The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste
Embodied Cognition
-In psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states of cognitive preferences and judgements
Figure and Ground
-You choose something to focus on (figure) and what is in the background (ground)
Grouping- Proximity
-Things that are close together we group together (space)
Grouping- Continuity
- We perceive smooth, continuous patterns
- Eye takes up path of least resistance
Grouping- Closure
-Tendency to fill in missing or incomplete formation
Grouping-Similarity
-Tendency to group similar things together
Grouping-Connectedness
- Things which are physically linked together we group together
- Overrides other tendencies of grouping
