Mid-Year Exam (Units 1,2,3,4,5,6,9) Flashcards
1
Q
Mirror Neurons
A
- Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
- The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
2
Q
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
A
- A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms
- In response to light, causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
3
Q
Self-control
A
-The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
4
Q
Mary Ainsworth
A
- Did “strange situation” experiment to study attachment types (secure vs insecure)
- 60% of infants display secure attachment
- Observed mother-infant pairs whose child was 6 months old, then observed at 1 year in strange situation
5
Q
Assimulation
A
-Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
6
Q
Y Chromosome
A
- The sex chromosome found only in males
- When paired with an X chromosome from the mother produces a male child
7
Q
Generalization
A
-The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
8
Q
Naturalistic Observation
A
- Observation of people or animals in their natural environments without interference from observer
- Behavior is not artificial (how they behavior in real world situations)
9
Q
Carl Rogers
A
- First humanistic psychologist
- Behaviorism and Freudian psych= too limiting
- Drew attention to ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit potential growth, and the importance of having our needs of love and acceptance satisfied
10
Q
Functionalism
A
- Early school of thought promoted by William James (founder) and Charles Darwin
- Explored how mental and behavioral processes function
- How they enable the organism to flourish, adapt, and survive
11
Q
Epigenetics
A
-The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
12
Q
Random Assignment
A
- Seen in experimentation
- How we allocate people to control or experimental group
- Done to avoid two drastically different groups (therefore we can predict if differences are from variables)
14
Q
Neurotransmitters
A
- Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
- When released by a sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron
- influence whether a neuron will generate a neural impulse
15
Q
Zygote
A
- The fertilized egg
- Enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
16
Q
Sensorimotor Stage
A
- Piaget’s Theory
- The stage from birth to about 2 years
- Infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activites
17
Q
Alcohol Use Disorder
A
- Alcoholism
- Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
18
Q
Control Group
A
- Normal group
- Used as comparison to experimental group (Nothing done to it)
19
Q
Law of Effect
A
-Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
21
Q
Fetus
A
-The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
22
Q
AIDS
A
- A life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
- Depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
23
Q
Testing Effect
A
- Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
- Sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
24
Q
Maturation
A
-Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
25
Q
Attachment
A
- An emotional tie with another person
- Shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
26
Q
Object Permanence
A
- The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
- Sensorimotor Stage
27
Psychology
- The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- Behavior: anything an organism does (yelling, smiling, laughing)
- Mental processes: Internal (sensations, thoughts, dreams)
28
Cognitive Psychology
-The Scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
29
MRI
- Shows what the brain looks like (soft tissue only)
| - Does not show what it is doing/function
30
Conditioned Reinforcer
- A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
- also know as a secondary reinforcer
31
Margaret Harlow
- Bred monkeys for attachment experimentation w/ husband
| * Info on his card*
32
Peripheral Nervous System
- Carry info to and from Central Nervous System
- Made up of sensory (Afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons
- Carries out commands from CNS
34
Higher-order learning
- A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
- Ex: an animal that have leaned that a tone predicts food night then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone
- Second-order conditioning
35
Gender role
-A set of expected behaviors for males or for females
36
Natural Selection
- The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to the succeeding generations
- Created by Charles Darwin (believed it also shaped behaviors as well as bodies)
37
John Garcia
- Studied taste aversion
- Why do we avoid foods?
- Usually taste
- Challenged the idea that all associations can be learned equally well
- Radiation made rats not want to drink the water in their radiation chambers
- Rats avoided tastes, sounds, or other sensations when associated with nausea
- Elected to the National Academy of Sciences
- APA's Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award
38
Conditioned Stimulus
-In classical conditioning , an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response
39
Humanistic Psychology
-A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
40
Psychometrics
-The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
42
Insight
-A sudden realization of a problem's solution
43
Critical period
-An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
44
Hallucinations
-False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
46
Positive Pyschology
- The scientific study of human functioning
| - Has the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive
48
Imprinting
-The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period
49
Occipital Lobe
- Very important!!
| - Complex visual processing
51
Limbic System
- Emotion(fear, aggression, happiness), memory
- Mammalian brain (pets: dogs, cats)
- Stuck between straight survival and advanced thinking)
53
Edward Thorndike
- Puzzle boxes
- Placed cats inside and they would learn from behavior, get better at solving once placed in many time
- Built foundation for operant conditioning
- Known for his studies on if animals could learn based on consequences
54
Intimacy
- In Erikson's theory
- The ability to form close, loving relationships
- A primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
55
Brainstem
- Oldest part of the brain
- Innermost part
- Survival functions
- Keeps you alive (breathing, heart beating)
- No complex thought
- Part of the reptilian brain (snakes)
- Where info streams into the brain
- Cross-wiring point
56
Reinforcement Schedule
-A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
57
Schema
-A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
58
Robert Rescorla
- Said animals can learn the predictability of events
- If a shock was preceded by a tone which is preceded by a light, animals would be afraid of the tone because they knew the shock was coming (better predictor than light)
59
Evolutionary Psychology
- The study of the evolution of behavior and mind
| - Uses principles of natural selection
59
Replication
- repeating the essence of a research study
- usually with different participants in different situations
- To see whether the basic finding extends to other participants or circumstances
60
Motor (Efferent) Neurons
- Efferent
| - Sends responses from brain and spinal chord to tissues and organs
61
Testosterone
- The most important of the male sex hormones
- Both males and female have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development o the male sex characteristics during puberty
62
Harry Harlow
- Attachment theorist
- Studied what causes attachment and what makes it so strong
- Created an experiment to show why we attach
- For food or comfort?
- Monkey spent 17 to 18 hours with comfy mother, 1 with feeding mother (contact comfort= more important)
- When scared, baby went to cloth mother
67
NREM Sleep
- Non-rapid eye movement sleep
| - Encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
68
Accomodation
-Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorperate new information
69
Dream
- A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
- notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamers delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it
70
Nerves
-Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
72
Fixed Ratio Schedule
-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
73
Formal Operational Stage
- Piaget's theory
- Beginning at 12
- people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
74
Eric Erikson
- Created the stages of social development
| - Each stage of life is associated with a psychosocial task that needs resolution
75
Discrimination
-In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
76
Reflex
-A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
77
Experimental Psychology
-The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
77
Psychiatry
- A branch of medicine dealing with psychology disorders
| - Practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
80
Amygdala
- -Fear and aggression center
- Anxiety (active during anxiety)
- Experience, express, interpret (in other people)
- Memory (cements horrific experience in memory)
- Ex: PTSD
81
Narcolepsy
- a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks
- The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
82
Operational Definition
- Carefully worded definition of your variables in a research study
- Ex: when talking about how stress relates to sleep, you have to define quantities of sleep
83
X Chromosome
- The sex chromosome found in both men and women
- Females have two , males have one
- One from each parent produces a female child
84
Experimental Group
-Manipulated group (tweaked)
85
Teratogens
- "monster maker"
| - Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
86
Menopause
- The time of natural cessation of menstruation
| - Refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
87
Spontaneous Recovery
-The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
88
Paul Broca
- French Physician
| - Discovered Broca's area in frontal lobe: production of speech
89
Dependent Variable
- Happens because of the independent variable
| - Measured
90
Axon
- Neuron extension
- Sends message across the neuron through its branches (axon terminals) to other neurons or muscles/glands
- Electro-impulse
93
Puberty
-The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
94
Theory
-An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
95
Community Psychology
- A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments
- how social institutions affect individuals and groups
96
Statistical Significance
- A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
- Lower than 5% is insignificant
97
Albert Bandura
- Bobo doll experiment
- Stated that children can learn from aggression
- Kids watching aggression video were more likely to use objects in room in aggressive/creative ways
- Disproved catharsis: viewing aggressive model releases a person's aggression
- We imitate people we:
- Believe are successful
- Admire
- Are similar to
98
THC
- The major active ingredient in marijuana
| - Triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
99
Hypothalamus
- -Bodily maintenance
- Homeostasis
- Drives (hunger, thirst)
- Controls ES (endocrine system, works with pituitary gland)
- Reward center
- Sends out feel-good messages when you maintain homeostasis
- Olas and Milner
- Hooked rat's part up to electrodes
- Stimulated it and the rat kept wanting it stimulated
100
PET Scan
- Uses radioactive glucose to see how the brain is functioning
- Sees when the glucose is being consumed
- Allows us to see what parts of the brain are the most active (where the most glucose is being consumed)
102
Alpha Waves
-The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
103
Basic Research
- Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
- Ex: Developmental, educational, personality, etc.
104
Longitudinal Study
-Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time
105
Variable Ratio Schedule
-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
106
Amphetamines
-Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
107
Culture
- The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people
- Transmitted from one generation to the next
108
Critical Thinking
- Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
- Examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
108
Measures of Central Tendency
- Mode: most frequently occurring score(s)
- Mean: average
- Median: middle score
109
Carol Gilligan
- Androcentric
- Did male research
- Ethics of Caring= female
- Ethics of Justice= males
- Women are less concerned with being viewed as an individual, and more with making connections
- Females= more interdependent than males
- Boys form larger groups in children's play & more competitive play
- Girls= smaller groups, less competitive, more
111
Adolescence
-The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
113
Endocrine System
- The body's "slow" chemical communication system
- set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
- Reason why it is slow
- influences growth, reproduction, metabolism, mood
- works hand-in-hand with nervous system
115
Case Study
- Tries to find something universal (Not good at it)
- Looks at 1 individual, group or event IN DEPTH
- Uses rare or abnormal cases
- Generates ideas for future research
- Cannot determine cause (No control of variables)
- Can't generalize to a larger population
115
Sampling Bias
-A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
116
Cerebral Cortex
- Higher thought
- Humans only
- Outer Covering of the brain (thin)
- Where synaptic connections happen, where the neurons communicate
117
Temporal Lobe
- Located near temples, extends past ears
- Where auditory processing happens
- Maintains balance and equilibrium
- Handles language comprehension
118
Environment
--Every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
123
Glial Cells
- -Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
- May also play a role in learning and thinking
124
Night Terrors
- A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified
- Unlike nightmares, they NREM-3 sleep with 2 to 3 hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
125
Corpus Callosum
- -Connect the two hemispheres
- How the two hemispheres communicate
- Allows information to be processes by both sides of the brain
- Made up of a band of neural fibers
126
Unconditioned Response
-In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (food)
127
Insomnia
-Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
128
Social Psychology
-The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
129
BF Skinner
- Modern behaviorist (controversial)
- studied operant conditioning using an operant chamber
- Consequences shape behavior
- Worked with animals to teach them to do "non animal" type things
130
Barbiturates
-Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
131
G Stanley Hall
- First president of the APA
- Storm vs Stress
- established the first formal United States psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University
132
Cerebellum
- -"Little brain" located at the rear of the brainstem
- Coordinates voluntary movement (somatic)
- Balance and coordination
- Impacted by alcohol
133
Cocaine
-A powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
134
Skewed Distribution
-A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
135
Molecular genetics
-The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
136
Correlation
- Finds the relationship between variables
- Tells us how strong the relationship and what direction
- Types:
- Positive (direct relationship) and Negative (inverse relationship)
137
Emotion-Focused Coping
-Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction
138
Survey
- Asks a lot of people a good amount of questions
| - A random sample of population that represents the whole (reflect wider population)
138
Illusory Correlation
-The perception of a relationship where none exists
139
Michael Gazzaniga
- Asked people w/ split brain to stare at a dot while he flashed HEART on the screen
- Would say they saw ART (seen with right visual field), but when asked to point, pointed with their left hand at HE
- Concluded left hemisphere is interpreter
140
Depressants
-Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
141
Fixed Interval Schedule
-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
142
Somatosensory Cortex
- Areas of the front of the parietal lobes
| - Register and process body touch and movement sensations
143
Discriminative Stimulus
-In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association wth reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
144
Conditioned Response
-In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
145
Cognitive Map
- A mental representation of the layout of one's environment
| - Ex: rats in maze act as if they have learned it
146
Sympathetic Nervous System
- Works with parasympathetic
- Responds to stressors
- Diverts energy away from areas that don't need it
- Fight or flight response (adrenaline)
- Ex: Sweating, raised heart rate
- Spends energy
147
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
- Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking
- In severe cases,signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
148
Educational Psychology
-The study of how psychological processes affect and enhance learning and teaching
149
Transgender
-An umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
150
Post-Hypnotic Suggestion
-A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
151
Methamphetamine
- A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
- Over time appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
152
Range
- Measure of Variation
| - Highest score minus lowest score
153
Independent Variable
- Changed/ manipulated
| - Used on experimental group
154
Nature-Nurture Issue
- The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experiences make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
- Today, science sees traits and behaviors arising from interaction of nature and nurture
155
Threshold
-The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
156
Concrete Operational Stage
- Piaget's theory
- Stage of cognitive development (starting at 6/7 to 11)
- children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
157
Self-concept
-All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question "who am I"
158
Gender
-The socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female
159
Lawrence Kohlberg
- Created the stages of moral reasoning by asking people of all ages moral dilemmas
- Work reflected individualistic culture and emphasized thinking over acting
- Preconventional, conventional, postconventional form a moral ladder (begin at the bottom rung and ascend)
160
Biopsychosocial Approach
-An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
160
Human Factors Psychology
- an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact
- how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
162
Ernest Hilgard
- Famed researcher
- Believed that hypnosis involved social influence and but also the dissociation
- Vivid form of everyday mind-splits
- When people are hypnotized to put arm in ice bath, they are separated from the pain (cold but not painful)
163
Population
- All those in a group being studied
- From which samples may be drawn (except in natural studies)
- Does not refer to a country's whole population
164
Debriefing
- Ethics of Experimentation created by the APA
- At the end of experiment
- Made aware of deception/ purpose of experiment
165
CT Scan
-series of X-Ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure
166
Synapse
-The junction between the axon terminals of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the cell body of the receiving neuron
167
SQ3R
-Study method incorporating 5 steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review
168
Hormones
- Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream (slow)
- Help with growth and development
- Changes occur in a longer period of time (hormones build up, which causes change)
168
Thalamus
- -Sensory Switchboard
- Relays sense info to high brain destination for processing
- Vision, taste, hearing, balance
- All senses except for smell
169
Descriptive Statistics
- Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups
- Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
170
Inferential Statistics
- Numerical data that allows one to generalize
| - Infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
171
Autonomic Nervous System
- Autopilot
- Regulates things you do automatically (don't have to think about it)
- Respiration, blinking, heart beating
- Working of inner glands and organs
173
Social Clock
-The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
174
Nervous System
-The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
175
Cognitive learning
-The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
177
Variable Interval Schedule
-In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
178
Cognition
-All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
179
Structuralism
- Introduced by Edward Bradford Titchener at Cornell University
- Early school of psychology promoted by Wundt and Titchener
- Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
180
Hypnosis
-A social interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person's (the hypnotist's) suggestions that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur
181
Aggression
-Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
186
Plasticity
--The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
187
Tolerance
- -Diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug
- Requires the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
- Caffeine
188
Extrinsic Motivation
-A desire to perform a belabor to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
189
Genes
- -The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
- Segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
191
Role
-A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
192
Central Nervous System
- Makes decisions within the body
- Messages end up or organize here (processes info)
- Parts: Brain and Spinal Chord (Made up of Interneurons)
193
Theory of Mind
- People's ideas about their own and other's mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
- PreOperational Stage
194
Wilhelm Wundt
- Father of Psychology
- Professor at Germany's University of Leipzig (first psych lab)
- Did experiments using introspection (focusing on sensations, images, and feelings)
- Measured time between when a ball hit a platform and the person heard it and hit a telegraph key
195
Unconditioned Stimulus
- In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers a response (UR)
- Food
196
Consciousness
- -Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
- Studied in cognitive neuroscience
- Evolutionary psychologists think it has a reproductive advantage
- Helps us act in our long-term interests instead of seeking short-term pleasure and avoiding pain
- Promotes survival:
- Anticipates how we seem to others & reads their minds
197
Social Learning Theory
-The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
198
Confounding Variable
-A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
198
Somatic Nervous System
- Voluntary control of skeletal muscles (acetylcholine)
| - Made up of motor neurons
198
Dual Processing
- -Two-Track mind
- The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
- Ex: when you encounter a person
- Aware or conscious of person
- You know it is a person through unconscious processing
- Low Road vs. High Road
- Conscious deliberate vs. unconscious automatic
199
Edward Tolman
- Further developed latent learning
- Created the idea of the cognitive map
- Came from studying rats in mazes who learned to navigate it without reward
200
Egocentrism
- Piaget's theory
| - A child's difficulty taking another's point of view (PreOperational Stage)
201
Validity
-The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
201
Split Brain (Surgery)
-A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus Callosum) connecting them
202
Neuron
- A nerve cell
| - The basic building block of the nervous system
203
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
-The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in work places
203
Heritability
- The portion of variation among individuals that we can contribute to genes
- may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied
205
Lesion
- -Tissue destruction
| - a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
205
DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
| - A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
206
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Works with sympathetic
- Maintains homeostasis
- Long-term survival
- Conserves energy
- Calms you back down
207
Psychodynamic Psychology
- A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior
- Uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
207
Mutation
-A random error in gene replication that leads to a change
208
Preoperational Stage
- Piaget's theory
- Stage from 2 to 6/7 years
- Child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
209
Learned Helplessness
-The helplessness and passive resignation an animal or man learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
210
Normal Curve
- A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve
- Describes the distribution of many types of data
- most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it)
- Fewer near the extremes
210
Chromosomes
-Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
211
Secondary Sex Characteristics
-Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
212
Cognitive Neuroscience
-The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language)
212
Action Potential
- Sending a message/ a neural impulse
- A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
- Positive ions enter the axon
- Depolarization (mix of positive and negative ions)
- Leads to a chain reaction of depolarization
213
Hallucinogens
-psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
214
Ivan Pavlov
- Father of classical conditioning
- Discovered it and came up with terminology
- Physiologist: anatomy and functioning of canine body
- Observed odd patterns of salivation in dogs
- Began experimentation
215
Near-Death Experience
- An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (similar to cardiac arrest)
- Often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
216
All-or-None Principle/Response
- Neurons fire according to this principle
- It will either fire with a full-strength response or it won't
- Once action potential happens, you cannot stop it
217
Frontal Lobe
- -Concentration
- Emotional regulation
- Personality (Makes you unique)
- Between frontal and parietal lobe is the motor cortex
- Goal-directed behavior
- Complex problem solving
218
Dissociation
-A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
220
Menarche
-The first menstrual period
221
Internal Locus of Control
-The perception that you control your own fate
222
Habituation
-An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
225
Motor Cortex
- Controls voluntary movements (somatic)
| - Located in the rear of the frontal lobes
226
Random Sample
- Used w/ survey research method
| - everyone has equal chance of being selected (represents the larger population
227
Behaviorism
- Early school of psychology
- The view that psychology:
1. Should be an objective science
2. Studies behavior without reference to mental processes
- Most psychologists agree with 1, but not 2
- Behaviorists: John B Watson & B.F Skinner (more important)
227
Reticular Formation
- -Basic Filter (filters out sounds you aren't listening to etc.)
- Alertness and arousal
- Attentional filter
- Scientists got rid of this in cats and they had comas
228
Interneurons
- Process Stimuli and create response
| - Located in brain and spinal chord
228
Substance Use Disorder
-Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
231
Cross-sectional study
-A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
232
William James
- philosopher, psychologist, functionalist (founder)
- wrote one of the first introductory psychology texts, Principles of Psychology
- Taught Mary Whiton Calkins
- Inspired by Darwin
233
Hindsight Bias
- The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you would have foreseen it
- Leads us to overestimate our intuition
233
Agonist
- Class of Chemicals
- Mimics a neurotransmitter and does the same thing as it
- Mimics structure of neurotransmitter
- A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
234
Antagonist
- Blocks function of neurotransmitter
- Mimics the structure of a neurotransmitter
- A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
234
Identical Twins
- Monozygotic twins
| - Twins who developed from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
235
Mary Whiton Calkins
- Taught by James at Harvard
- Denied a Ph.D in psychology even though she met all the requirements
- APA's first female president and memory researcher
236
Carl Wernicke
- German investigator
| - Discovered Wernicke's area in temporal lobe :understanding of speech
237
Continuous reinforcement
-Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
238
Observational Learning
- Learning by observing others
| - Also called social learning
240
Adrenal Glands
- Made up of both the Adrenal Cortex and Adrenal Medulla
- Medulla
- Produces nonessential hormones
- Ex. Adrenaline
- Reacts to stress
- Adrenal Cortex
- Produces cortisol
- Regulates stress and metabolism
- Produces Aldosterone
- Controls blood pressure
- Issues
- Cushing’s Syndrome- too much cortisol
- Lose weight in extremities but gain it in your midsection, neck, and face
241
Levels of Analysis
-The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
241
Fraternal Twins
- Dizygotic Twins
- Twins who developed from separate fertilized eggs
- They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
241
Interaction
-The interplay that occur when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
243
Standard Deviation
- Measure of Variation
| - A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
243
Sleep Apnea
-A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessation in breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
244
Endorphins
- "Morphine within"
| - Natural opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain-control & pleasure
247
Embryo
-The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
249
Sigmund Freud
- Controversial personality theorist
- Emphasized the ways emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious thought processes affect our behavior
- Father of the Psychoanalytic School of Psychology
- divided the mind into the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind
250
Lev Vygotsky
- Russian developmental psychologist
- Child's mind grows through interaction with social environment
- Children internalize culture's language and rely on inner speech
- zone of proximal development: zone of what a child can do with help
251
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
- afferent
| - take info from external environment or tissues and organs to central nervous system
253
Shaping
-An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
254
Delta Waves
-The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
255
Charles Darwin
- Believed natural selection shapes behavior as well as bodies
- Wrote "On The Origin of Species"
- Created natural selection
256
Sexual Orientation
-An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation)
257
Biofeedback
-A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
261
Associative learning
- Learning that certain events occur together
| - The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning)
262
Applied Research
-Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
262
EEG
- electroencephalogram
- Gives insight on how the brain is functioning by placing electrodes on the skin
- Doesn't give specific info, only overall
262
Behavior Genetics
--The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
262
REM Rebound
- The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
- Created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep
263
Basic Trust
- According to Eric Erikson
- A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy
- Said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
264
Refractory Period
- After action potential
- A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired (getting ready to fire again)
- Unable to do so for a bit of time
264
Acquisition
- In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
- Operant conditioning: the strengthening of a reinforced response
265
Addiction
-Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
267
External Locus of Control
-The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate
268
Conservation
-The principle (part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
269
Opiates
- Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin
| - Depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
269
Ecstasy (MDMA)
- A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen
- Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and long-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
270
Hypothesis
-A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
270
Sleep
- Period, natural loss of consciousness
| - Distinct from loss of consciousness resulting a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
271
Empiricism
- The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
- Built off of Bacon's and Locke's ideas
272
Placebo/ Placebo Effect
- -"Shall I please"
- Experimental results caused by expectations alone
- Any affect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition (recipient assumes is an active ingredient)
272
Parietal Lobe
- -Adjacent to frontal lobes
| - Has sensory cortex (registers sensory input- touch, body sensations)
272
Genome
- The complete instructions for making an organism
| - Consists of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
273
Nicotine
-A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
274
FMRI
- Traces oxygen flow in the brain (which reveals blood flow)
- Reveals brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans
- Show brain function as well as structure
275
Primary Sex Characteristics
-The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
276
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
-A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
277
Dorothea Dix
- Led the way to humane treatment of those with psychological disorders
- Therapy
278
Behavioral Psychology
-The scientific study of observable behavior, and it's explanation by principles of learning
280
Biological Psychology
- The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
- Ex: behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists
281
Margaret Floy Washburn
- 1st woman to receive a psychology Ph.D
- Wrote "the animal mind"
- 2nd female APA president
- Not allowed to join organization of experimental psychologists
282
Pituitary Gland
- -Master Gland
- Major Function: Controls growth and development and the functioning of other endocrine glands
- Hormones: Growth hormone, Puberty hormones, Prolactin, and Adrenocorticotropic
- Potential issues:
- Benign growths called “adenoma”
- stops hormone production or overproduces hormones
283
Identity
- Our sense of self
| - According to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
284
Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga
- Psychologists
- Divided the brain by splitting the corpus callosum in cats and monkeys--> no bad effects
- Set information to each eye to see how we process information in each hemisphere since information cannot be communicated in between
285
Stimulants
- Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine)
- excite neural activity and speed up body functions
286
Primary Reinforcer
-An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
287
Prosocial Behavior
- Positive, constructive, helpful behavior
| - Opposite of antisocial behavior
288
Reinforcement
-In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
288
Modeling
-The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
289
Medulla
- -Breathing
- Heart rate
- Crossover point
- "Medic" of your brain
290
Stranger Anxiety
- The fear of strangers that infants commonly display
- Beginning 8 months of age
- Sensorimotor stage
291
Social-Cultural Psychology
-The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
291
Neutral Stimulus
-In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
291
Operant Chamber
- In operant conditioning research
- A chamber (Skinner box) containing a bar or key that animals can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
- Attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
292
Neurogenesis
-The formation of new neurons
292
Problem-Focused Coping
-Attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way interact with that stressor
293
LSD
- A powerful hallucinogenic drug
| - Also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)
294
REM Sleep
- Rapid eye movement sleep
- A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
- Also known as paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed (except minor twitches) but other body systems are active
294
Learning
-The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
294
Positive Reinforcement
- Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers
| - Positive reinforcer: any stimulus that when presented after a response, strengthens the response
295
Diane Baumrind
- Studied types of parenting styles and which one works best (authoritative)
- Parenting styles: Too hard, too soft, and just right
- Authoritative: child has good self esteem, self-reliant, and socially competent
- Authoritarian: low self-esteem, poor social skills
- Permissive: aggressive and immature
296
John B Watson
- Worked with Rosalie Rayner
- Demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby known as "Little Albert" and made him fear a white rat
- father of behaviorism
- dismissed introspection
- suggested psychology study how people respond to stimuli (behavior) rather than inner thoughts, feelings, and motives
- Redefine psychology as the “the scientific study of observable behavior”
298
Circadian Rhythm
- The biological clock
| - Regular bodily rhythms (temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
299
Punishment
-An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
300
Gender Identity
-Our sense of being male or female
301
Personality Psychology
-The study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
301
Scatterplot
- Graphed cluster of dots
- represents the values of two variables
- Slope suggests the direction of the relationship
- Scatter suggests strength of correlation
302
Association Areas
- Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions
- Involved in higher mental functions
- learning, thinking remembering, speaking
- Link sensory input w/ stored memories
302
Stimulus
-Any event or situation that evokes a response
303
Correlational Coefficient
- Correlation: measure of the extent to which two variables change together (how well either variable predicts the other)
- A statistical index between two variables
- Between -1 and 1
- Perfect correlation (1 or -1)
303
Manifest Content
-According to Freud, the remembered story-line of a dream (as distinct from latent or hidden content)
304
Classical Conditioning
-A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
305
Negative Reinforcement
- Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
- Negative reinforcer: any stimulus that , when removed after a response, strengthens the response
307
Developmental Psychology
-A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout a lifespan
307
Counseling Psychology
- A branch of psychology that assists people with living and achieving a greater well-being
- often related to school, work, or marriage
307
Experiment
- -Pro:Only research method that can tell us causation(variables are controlled)
- Con: Situation is artificial, results may not generalize to the real world
- Things can be tweeked
- Two groups in experimentation: control group and experimental group
307
Dendrites
- Branch Extensions of the neuron
- Pick up information/ receive messages
- Conduct impulses towards the cell body
- Absorb neurotransmitters
307
Myelin Sheath
- Fat insulations segmentally encasing an axon on some neurons (messages can't travel though it)
- Uses Saltatory conduction to make messages travel faster (nodes of Ranvier)
- Ex of degenerative disease: Multiple Sclerosis
307
Psychoactive Drug
- A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
| - Types: stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens
307
Operant Behavior
-Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
307
Intrinsic Motivation
-A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
307
Temperament
-A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
308
Coping
-Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
309
Respondent Behavior
-Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
310
Informed Consent
- Tell people enough info for them to make a decision to participate or not
- Know risks involved
- Can drop out at any time
- Ethics of Experimentation created by the APA
310
Operant Conditioning
-A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
310
Latent Learning
-Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
310
Gender Typing
-The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
311
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
- Reinforcing a response only pert of the time
- Results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
312
Social Identity
- The "we" aspect of our self-concept
| - The part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
313
Latent Content
-According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as opposed to manifest content)
314
Konrad Lorenz
- Researched imprinting, especially with birds
- What would ducklings do if he was the first living creature they observed? -Follow him around
- Birds will imprint on other moving things such as animals of other species, boxes on wheels, and bouncy balls
- Attachment is difficult to reverse
315
Reuptake
- Some neurotransmitters are not used, which is when re-uptake occurs
- Takes un-used neurotransmitters and send them back to sending the neuron
315
Emerging Adulthood
-For some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and dull independence and responsible adulthood
316
Extinction
- The diminishing of a conditioned response
- occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditional stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
- Operant conditioning: a response is no longer reinforced
318
Jean Piaget
- Created idea of schemas, assimilation vs accommodation, and the stages of development
- French Psychologist: created intelligence tests
- Intrigued by patterns of wrong answers within age groups
- Led to him studying childhood cognition
319
Clinical Psychology
-Branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
319
Double-Blind Procedure
- An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and staff are ignorant (Blind) about whether research participants have received treatment or the placebo
- Commonly done during drug evaluations
319
Withdrawal
- -Discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
- Causes of withdrawal: Physical dependence, psychological dependence
320
Sensation
- The experience of sensory stimulation
- Smells, sights, sounds, tastes, touch, balance, pain
- Raw data of experience (info we take in)
- How we register energy from the body
321
Perception
- The process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory information
- How we interpret sensory input
- Organizes and assembles incoming information
- Language= perceptual
322
Bottom-Up Processing
- Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
- Look at something to figure out what it is
323
Top-down Processing
- Guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience/expectations
- Ex: thinking a picture of dots is a dog because someone told you it was
324
Selective Attention
-The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
325
Inattentional Blindness
-Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
326
Change Blindness
-Failing to notice changes in the environment
327
Transduction
- Transforming one type of energy/information into another
- Ex: light energy into neural information
- The transferring of stimulus energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
328
Psychophysics
- The study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli, such as intensity, and our psychological experiences of them
- Acknowledges:
- We are constantly bombarded with energy yet do not detect much of it
- This energy needs to reach a certain level before we can detect it
329
Absolute Threshold
- The point at which sensation occurs (50% of the time)
- The level of sensory stimulation needed for sensation to occur
- Vary depending on environment and individual
- Higher: higher amount of energy needed
- Lower: lower amount of energy needed
330
Signal Detection Theory
- A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
- Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
331
Subliminal
-Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
332
Priming
-The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
333
Difference Threshold
- Smallest change in stimulation that we can detect (50% of the time)
- Just notable difference
- We don't just register that there is stimulation, we can detect change
- Varies with the size of the stimulus
- Amount needed to notice change depending on the size of the starting stimulus
- Ex: weight
334
Weber's Law
- Applies to difference threshold
- 2 stimuli must vary by a constant percentage (rather than amount), to be perceived as different
- Weight: 2%
- Light: 8%
335
Sensory Adaptation
- Changes absolute threshold
1. The gradual loss of attention to unneeded or unwanted sensory information (stops sending info to our brain/sensory neurons stop responding)
- Ex: breathing
2. An adjustment of the senses to the level of stimulation they are receiving
3. Our diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus
- Ex: odor in home
- Adaptation occurs when there is an unchanging stimulus, except with vision
336
Perceptual Set
-A mental predisposition to perceive one thing but not another
337
Extrasensory Perception
- ESP
- The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input
- Telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
338
Parapsychology
- The study of paranormal phenomena
| - Includes ESP and psychokinesis
339
Pupil/ Iris
- Pupil: adjustable opening in front of the lens
- Adjusts in response to light environment
- Optimal light intake/ perfect amount of light to see
- Dark out= larger pupil and vice versa
- Iris: ring of muscle surrounding the pupil (colored)
- Contracts and expands to make pupil larger or smaller
340
Lens
- Clear curved structure (looks like inflated contact lens)
| - Focuses light onto the retina by changing its curvature
341
Retina
- Has photoreceptors (communicate light info to brain)
- Where transduction occurs: light energy--> neural energy
- Light does not go past the retina
- Optic nerve brings info from photoreceptors to brain
342
Accommodation (Visual)
- Lens changes how much it is curved to achieve optimal focus
- Relaxes w/ far stuff
- Curved w/ near stuff
- When light waves pass through lens, it reflects/flips upside down
- The image shown to the retina is upside down, reassembled in the brain
343
Rods
- Cannot see color
- Location: outer retina
- Handle peripheral vision
- Clarity: general outline/motion
- Optimal environment: dim lighting/ low light levels
344
Cones
- Can see color
- Location: inner/center retina (fovea)
- Clarity: enable clarity of vision
- Optimal environment: a lot of light
345
Blind Spot
- Located at the bottom center of the back of the eyeball w/o photoreceptors
- Cannot pick up visual information
- Where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
346
Feature Detectors
- Hobel and Wiesel
- Occipital lobe neurons receive info from individual retinal ganglion cells
- Feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific feature of stimulus (circles, angles, etc)
- Break objects down and work together simultaneously
347
Young-Helmholz Trichromatic Theory
- Color occurs because of three different types of cones
- Specialized in response to different wavelengths (correspond to different colors)
- Short, medium, and long wavelengths
- Team up to produce new/different colors (all colors)
- Color combos: red, blue-violet, and green (how lights mix to form these colors)
348
Opponent-Process Theory
- Trichromatic= inadequate ( we shouldn't be able to see certain colors if we don't have certain cones)
- Ewald Hering
1. Cones pick up color and produce info
2. Opposing retinal processes enable color vision (will tell u colors are one color or opposite)
- Red or green, yellow or blue, black or white
349
Depth Perception
- The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional
- Allows us to judge distance
350
Visual Cliff
-A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
351
Binocular Cues
- Uses 2 eyes to see depth
- Retinal disparity
- Retinas receive different information from each other
- Lays one retina's image on top of the other
- The closer to your face, the greater retinal disparity and vice versa
- Compares viewpoints to understand depth
- More different= closer
- More similar= farther away
- Convergence
- Measures the muscle strain in eyes
- The more eyes strain, closer it is
- Relaxed eye= further away
352
Monocular Cues
- Rely on use of one eye
1. Relative height
- Compares height on retina with visuals
- Higher up= further away
- Lower= closer
2. Relative size
- Takes up less size on retina= further away
- More size= closer
3. Linear perspective
- Parallel lines tend to converge in the distance at vanishing point
- Closer lines= further away and vice versa
4. Interposition
- Look at how things are layered
- Can see full image= closer
- Behind things= further away
353
Phi Phenomenon
-An illusion of movement when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
354
Perceptual Constancy
-Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and colors) even as illumination and retinal images change
355
Color Constancy
-Perceiving familiar objects as having constant colors, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
356
Audition
-The sense or act of hearing
357
Cochlea
- Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
- Fluid vibrates in response to vibration, which activates nerve impulses
- Inner lining= basilar membrane
- As fluid moves, membrane moves back and forth
- Lined with hair cells, and movement of this membrane activates hair cells
358
Inner Ear
- The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
359
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
- Uses Cochlear Implants
- Hearing loss causes by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves
- Also called nerve deafness
360
Conduction Hearing Loss
-Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
361
Cochlear Implant
-A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
362
Place Theory
- Helmholtz
- Different places activated along basilar membrane (different frequencies activated)
- Good for determining high pitch, not low pitch
- High frequencies: large vibrations near beginning of membrane
- Low frequencies: large vibrations near the end of the basilar membrane
363
Frequency Theory
- Brain monitors rate of neural impulses traveling up auditory nerve
- Good for low pitch, not for high pitch
- Frequencies activate cells at different rates, brain can monitor this and figure out what frequency it is
364
Gate-Control Theory
- The theory that the spinal chord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or pass on to the brain
- The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers
- Closed by activity in large fivers or by information coming from the brain
365
Kinesthesis
- The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
- Disruption= disembodied
366
Vestibular Sense
- The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
- Position of head
- Semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
- Movement of fluid communicated to cerebellum
- Dizziness
367
Sensory Interaction
-The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste
368
Embodied Cognition
-In psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states of cognitive preferences and judgements
369
Figure and Ground
-You choose something to focus on (figure) and what is in the background (ground)
370
Grouping- Proximity
-Things that are close together we group together (space)
371
Grouping- Continuity
- We perceive smooth, continuous patterns
| - Eye takes up path of least resistance
372
Grouping- Closure
-Tendency to fill in missing or incomplete formation
373
Grouping-Similarity
-Tendency to group similar things together
374
Grouping-Connectedness
- Things which are physically linked together we group together
- Overrides other tendencies of grouping
