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AP Psychology (Class) > Memory Unit 7 > Flashcards

Memory Unit 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

Information Processing Model

A
  1. Encode- get info into our memory system/process
  2. Store- Keeping the info around
  3. Retrieve- using/looking at the info
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2
Q

Encoding (Dual Track)

A

Types:

  • Automatic processing
  • Effortful processing
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3
Q

Automatic Processing

A
  • Don’t need to do work to process
  • Ex: Spacial relationships, time (sequences), frequency (things that repeat), well-learned information (language, numbers)
    • Whenever you look at language or numbers, you automatically read them
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4
Q

Effortful Processing

A

-Rehearsal: conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or encode it for storage
Types: Rote/ maintenance (repeat verbatim), elaborative (elaborate on info)

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5
Q

Ebbinghaus

A
  • studied nonsense syllables
  • Retention curve and forgetting curve
  • As rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases (negative correlation)
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6
Q

Cramming/Massed practice

A
  • Bad
  • Speedy short-term learning/ feelings of confidence
  • Does not yield long-term recall
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7
Q

Spacing Effect

A
  • Good

- Distributed study time leads to better long-term recall

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8
Q

Testing effect

A

-Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

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9
Q

Imagery/Mnemonic Devices

A
  • Improve memory marginally
  • Imagery: mental pictures; powerful aid to effortful processing
  • Mnemonic device: learning technique that aids memory retention
    • Acronyms
    • Method of location (loci)
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10
Q

Types of Effortful processing

A
  • Depends on how we process information
  • Types:
    • Shallow encoding/processing
    • Deep encoding/ processing
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11
Q

Crack and Tulving

A
  • Looked at differences between types of processing
  • The way you encode information would change your ability to recall info at a later date
  • Set up an experiment where they could control the way a person processed information
  • Used semantic (best- deep), acoustic( 2nd best somewhat shallow), and visual (3rd best-shallow) processing
  • If we can encode based on what something means, yields the best recall at later date
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12
Q

Serial Position Effect

A
  • Tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list better than the items in the middle
  • Position things one after another
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13
Q

Primacy Effect

A
  • Tendency to recall items at the beginning of list

- Nothing else has crowded our memory system- full attention

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14
Q

Recently Effect

A
  • Tendency to recall items at the end of a list
  • Freshest in our mind
  • Haven’t had time to leave memory yet
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15
Q

Rehearsal

A

-Autoencode repetition of remembering things (frequency)

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16
Q

Semantic distinctiveness

A
  • Words or items that are different in meaning we notice

- Ex: artichoke in the list of sleep-related words

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17
Q

Constructed memory

A
  • Encode based on meaning/gist

- Details get lost–> false memories form

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18
Q

Atkinson and Shiffrin

A
  • How we encode, store, and retrieve
  • Model of memory, different ways and places memory is stored
  • External event–> sensory –(encoding [attention needed])-> STM/Working memory–encoding-> LTM
  • When info goes from LTM to STM/WM, we are retrieving
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19
Q

Sensory Memory

A
  • Immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system
  • Entry point for raw info from the senses
  • Types: Iconic and Acoustic/ echoic
  • Recording in sensory registers–> lost forever or sent to STM/WM (have to be paying attention)
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20
Q

Iconic

A
  • Studied by Sperling
  • We do have this very brief recording of visual info- 1 to 2 seconds
  • Showed participants letters flashed on a screen (millisecond)
  • Played a different tone that corresponds with a row- people can remember the row if tone happened within a few seconds
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21
Q

Acoustic/ Echoic

A
  • Very brief sound memory (3 to 4 seconds) that can occur even if attention is elsewhere
  • Communication is sound-based
    • Therefore lasts more than iconic
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22
Q

Sensory-> STM/WM

A
  • Attention

- Need to move info from sensory to STM/MN

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23
Q

Short-Term Memory

A
  • Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
  • Holding area- work to keep it there (rehearsal)
  • Ex: remembering phone #s until you don’t need it anymore
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24
Q

Working Memory

A
  • Updated understanding of STM stage

- Involves conscious, active processing of incoming info, and of info retrieved from LTM

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25
Q

Active Stage

A
  • Lots of stuff going into WM
  • Sending info to the LTM but retrieving it from there as well (how we encode info/ make connections)
  • Bi-directional flow
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26
Q

Capacity of STM/WM

A
  • Approximately 7 items

- How we cluster info can increase/decrease this

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27
Q

Chunking

A
  • Taking individual units and grouping them into larger units
  • Can help if more into STM/WM
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28
Q

Long Term Memory

A
  • Limitless
  • Relatively permanent storehouse of memory
  • Building meaning to encode it property for LTM
  • Types: Explicit and Implicit
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29
Q

Where is memory stored?

A
  • Everywhere
  • Lashley
    • Taught rats how to navigate mazes so that they remembered it, then removed parts of the brain
    • Whatever part he removed, it affected memory
    • What mattered was how much of the brain was removed–> neural connections are affected
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30
Q

Explicit vs Implicit

A
  • 2 track storage
  • Also called Declarative vs. Nondeclarative
  • Easily expressed vs experienced
    • Recall on command, easily verbalized vs. more body based, actions
  • Use different brain structures
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31
Q

Explicit Memory

A
  • Types: Episodic and Semantic

- Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

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32
Q

Episodic memory

A
  • Autobiographical memory
  • Personally experienced events
  • replaying/ recalling events
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33
Q

Semantic memory

A
  • Acquired knowledge: facts, figures, knowledge

- Information

34
Q

Brain Structures for Explicit Memory

A
  • Frontal lobes- working memory
  • Hippocampus- processes explicit memory for storage
    • During REM/ deep sleep
    • Located in the temporal lobe
35
Q

Implicit Memory

A

-Retention independent of conscious recollection

Types: procedural, emotional

36
Q

Procedural memory

A
  • Muscle memory
  • How to do something (autopilot)
    • Ride a bike
    • Speak
  • Basal Ganglia: motor coordination
    • Active during formation of procedural memory
37
Q

Emotional memory

A
  • Classically conditioned responses
  • Feelings triggered by seeing/experiencing something you have experienced before
    • Pride in seeing a flag
    • Seeing a test and getting anxiety
  • Cerebellum: active during emotional memory
38
Q

Infantile Amnesia

A
  • Conscious memory of 1st 3 years is blank
  • Implicit memory started working before explicit memory
  • Cannot recall because hippocampus isn’t fully functioning until age 3
39
Q

Stress hormones

A
  • Set the chemical basis for new memories
  • Signal that something has happened
  • Sears memory into brain
  • Tells the Amygdala to activate memory traces, disrupts other memory formations occurring at the time
  • Ex: cannot learn if stressed, new info is overshadowed
40
Q

Flashbulb Memory

A
  • A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment
  • Everything is being captured
  • 9/11
41
Q

Is our recall perfect?

A
  • No

- Every time you open an old memory, you open it up to misinformation

42
Q

Kandel

A
  • Discovered Long-Term potentiation
  • An increase in a cell’s firing potential after a brief, rapid stimulation
  • Believed to be a neural a basis for learning and memory
43
Q

Retrieval

A

-Types: Recall and Recognition

44
Q

Recall

A

-Retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the blank test

45
Q

Recognition

A

-Identify items preciously learned, as on a multiple choice test

46
Q

Recall vs Recognition

A
  • Over time, recall fades while recognition remains

- Prospective memory decreases (things you have to do - u forget)

47
Q

Harry Bahrick

A
  • Studied memory of high school classmates 25 years after graduation
  • Bad recall–> couldn’t think of all classmates names
  • 90% recognition
    • used pictures of the people or a list of names
48
Q

Retrieval cues

A
  • Memory triggers- access points of memory
  • Ways of accessing memory
    • The more retrieval cues you have, the more of a chance you have at accessing a memory
  • Learning info in only one way makes it difficult to access info: learn in multiple ways
49
Q

Context Effects

A
  • Being in context of learning can help
  • Godden and Baddeley
    • Scuba divers listen to words in two settings, recalled the words better when they were in the same context they learned them in
  • Ex: retracing steps can trigger memory
    • Why police the witnesses back to the scene of the crime
      • Can be problematic because they can created a newly flawed memory
50
Q

State-dependent memory

A
  • What we learn in a certain physiological state can be more easily recalled when in that same state again
  • Internal vs external physiological state can help if in the same state when recalling
51
Q

Mood Congruent Memory

A
  • Type of state-dependent memory
  • Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood
  • Ex: depressed people have difficultly thinking good thoughts because bad mood triggers more bad thoughts
52
Q

Memory

A

-The persistent of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

53
Q

Parallel processing

A
  • The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
  • The brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions
  • Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
54
Q

Shallow processing

A

-Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

55
Q

Deep Processing

A
  • Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words

- Tends to yield the best recall

56
Q

Hippocampus

A
  • A neural center located in the limbic system

- Helps process explicit memories for storage

57
Q

Relearning

A

-A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

58
Q

Priming

A

-The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

59
Q

Why do we forget?

A
  • Encoding failure
  • Storage decay
  • Retrieval failure
60
Q

Elderly Brains

A
  • Less active in encoding

- May explain age-related memory decline

61
Q

Selective Attention

A
  • Attending to one thing, and disregarding other things (do not properly encode)
  • Leads to encoding failure
  • Much of forgetting is due to improper encoding
62
Q

Forgetting Curve (Storage Decay)

A
  • Ebbinghaus
    • Studied more nonsense syllables
    • Measured how much he retained after varying intervals
    • Forgetting –> initially rapid, then levels off with time
      • Stuff that remains you will hang on to for a long time
63
Q

Bahrick and the Forgetting Curve (Storage Decay)

A
  • Forgetting curve for Spanish
  • 3 years out of school, a lot had been forgotten
  • 25+ years later, forgetting hand’t increased
    • Hang on to forever the things that remain
64
Q

Causes of storage decay?

A
  • Possible physical memory traces start to decay

- Especially connections we do not use

65
Q

Retrieval Failure

A
  • Info is there, but we cannot access it
    • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
      • Memory can be recalled with retrieval cues
66
Q

Interference

A
  • Learning info may disrupt recall of info

- Two types: Proactive and Retroactive

67
Q

Proactive Interference

A
  • Old info disrupts new info (difficult to remember new stuff)
  • Ex: cannot remember new locker combination, but can remember last year’s
68
Q

Retroactive Interference

A
  • New info replaces the old (new learning disrupts recall of old info)
  • Ex: cannot remember last year’s locker combination
69
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

-An inability to form new memories

70
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

-An inability to retrieve information from one’s past

71
Q

Repression

A

-In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

72
Q

Misinformation

A

-Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

73
Q

Source Amnesia

A
  • Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, or imagined
  • Also called misattribution
  • Along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
74
Q

Deja Vu

A
  • That eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”

- Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

75
Q

Loftus and Palmer

A
  • Eyewitness testimony
  • film of traffic accident followed by emotionally loaded questions
    • If they said that the cars “smashed into each other” more people would say they saw glass in the video, when no glass was there
    • If they said the cars “hit” each other, less people said they saw glass in the video
76
Q

Poole and Lindsay

A
  • Mr. Science
    • Came to preschool
    • Read a book about preschoolers having a day with Mr. Science
    • Did some real experiments
  • 40%: recalled doing the events that they read in the book
77
Q

False Convictions

A

-79% of 200 people exonerated by DNA evidence were convicted on faulty eyewitness accounts

78
Q

Digitally altered images skew memory

A
  • People who are shown photoshopped images mixed in with actual images of their child remember doing the false events
  • Ex: showed picture of you and your family in a hot air balloon when you never went on one together, you think that that actually happened
79
Q

Imagination Inflation

A
  • simply imagining an event can create a false memory
    • mundane tasks
      • Picking up a stapler and breaking a window
    • traumatic childhood event (25%)
      • needing stiches
  • By imagining something happened, we can acquire false memories
80
Q

Patient HM

A
  • Henry Molaison
  • Severe seizure disorder
  • Had hippocampus removed
  • Could not remember anything that happened after his surgery (anterograde amnesia)
  • Couldn’t form new explicit memories
  • Studied by Milner
    • He could improve on the star-tracking task, but had not recall of having done the task before (emphasizes dual-track storage)

AP Psychology (Class) (21 decks)

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