Lectures 1-8 Flashcards
What is feedforward in homeostasis?
Anticipation of an event that will alter a controlled variable, leading to actions that minimize the effect.
Describe irregular bones.
Various shapes and functions; they often have foramina (holes).
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
Support, movement, protection, storage of minerals, and red blood cell formation.
What are movements in the sagittal plane?
Flexion and extension.
What are the two determinants of skeletal muscle force generation?
The number of muscle fibres recruited and the rate of muscle stimulation.
How is bone homeostasis maintained?
Balance between Osteoblast and Osteoclast activity, allowing constant bone formation and destruction.
Describe the pelvic girdle.
Made up of the two hip bones and the sacrum; supports weight-bearing.
What are sarcomeres and what do they contain?
Repeating units in myofibrils made of contractile proteins: actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments).
Identify the major bones of the skeleton, and understand why/how some are sexually dimorphic.
Major bones include the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, and limb bones. Sexual dimorphism is seen in the pelvis to accommodate childbirth in females.
What are the components of an osteon?
Central canal (with blood vessels and nerves), lamellae (cylinders of ECM), lacunae (for osteocytes), and canaliculi (channels for osteocytes).
What does the appendicular skeleton consist of and what is its function?
Consists of the limb bones; it is important for movement.
Which tissue can be divided into skeletal, cardiac, and smooth?
Muscle tissue.
What does the axial skeleton consist of and what is its function?
Consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage; it protects vital organs.
Describe the microscopic structure of bones.
Compact bone has osteons with central canals, lamellae, lacunae, and canaliculi; cancellous bone has trabeculae with marrow and osteocytes.
Describe the structure and function of the skull.
Made up of the cranium and facial bones; protects the brain and supports sensory organs.
What is inversion?
Turning the sole of the foot towards the midline.
What are movements in the coronal plane?
Abduction and adduction.
What responses are coordinated by the Heat-Gain centre when body temperature lowers?
Behavioral changes, vasoconstriction, reduced sweat production, shivering, and goosebumps.
What happens if there is an imbalance of water and solute concentrations across the cell membrane?
Water will move to balance the concentrations, affecting cell size and integrity.
What is osmosis?
Movement of water across a membrane to equalize solute concentration.
Define terms used to describe spatial and positional relationships of structures.
Anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.
Describe the gross structure of bones and explain how they reflect their functions.
Compact bone is strong for force transmission; cancellous bone is light and spongy for shock absorption.
How does the length-tension relationship affect muscle strength?
Each muscle has an optimal length where it is strongest, with changing overlap between actin and myosin filaments affecting strength.
What is DFCT, and what are its characteristics?
Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue; contains fibroblasts, collagen, and some elastin, resists tension, and has little vascularity.
Where are the secondary ossification centers located, and what is their function?
In the epiphyses; they enable bone growth in length through the epiphyseal/growth plate.
What does the term “lateral” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the midline of the body.
What is the difference between passive ion channels and active pumps?
Passive channels allow ions to move down their gradient, active pumps use energy to move ions against their gradient.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is muscle tissue?
50%
Describe a bone pathology related to lack of homeostasis.
Osteoporosis, caused by more Osteoclast activity than Osteoblast activity, leading to thinning trabeculae and increased fracture risk.
Describe the pectoral girdle.
Made up of the clavicle and scapula; provides stability and muscle attachments.
What does hypotonic mean?
Higher solute concentration inside the cell, causing water to enter the cell.
What structures are included in epithelial tissue?
Epithelia and glands (exocrine and endocrine).
Where is compact bone found and what is its function?
Found in the diaphysis; it is strong and good at transmitting force in one direction.
What is supination?
Turning the palms to face anteriorly.
Which tissue forms glands?
Epithelial tissue.
Describe the general principles of bone growth.
Bone grows in length at epiphyseal plates and in width through appositional growth involving osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
What is plantarflexion?
Pointing the toes towards the ground.
Why is knowing terminology important in anatomy?
It allows effective communication and avoids vague descriptions or directions.
What is the function of fibrocartilage?
To resist tension and compression, act as a shock absorber, and deepen articular surfaces.
What are the characteristics of fast muscle fibres?
They produce a lot of force quickly but fatigue quickly.
What is rotation in anatomical movement?
Movement around the long axis of a joint.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is nervous tissue?
2%
What percentage of tissue in the human body is connective tissue?
45%
What is adduction?
Moving a limb towards the midline of the body.
What is the difference in structure between compact and cancellous bone?
Compact bone has an osteon structure; cancellous bone has a trabecular structure.
Describe the structure of limb bones.
Each limb has a single proximal long bone (humerus/femur), two distal long bones (ulna and radius/tibia and fibula), and bones of the hands and feet.
What is the primary site of ion loss?
The kidney.
What are the functions of nervous tissue?
Conducts electrical impulses and carries information.
Describe short bones.
Nearly equal in width and length, mostly cancellous bone; they are weight-bearing (e.g., carpals and tarsals).
Describe flat bones.
Thin plates of compact bone (with some cancellous); they function for muscle attachment and protection (e.g., scapula, skull, sternum).
What is the coronal plane?
The plane that divides the body into front and back sections.
Where is cancellous bone found and what is its function?
Found in the epiphyses; it is light, spongy, and good for shock absorption.
What is bony congruence?
The sum of bone surfaces that form an articulation, requiring more soft tissue where there is less congruence.
What is the function of hyaline cartilage?
To resist compression, mold bone surfaces at joints, and enable frictionless movement.
What does the term “anterior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Towards the front of the body.
What is the function of cartilaginous joints?
To allow some movement, found in intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis.
What is an osteon, and what is its function?
A lengthwise unit in compact bone; provides a pathway for nutrients to cells in the ECM.
Where is the primary ossification center located, and what does it do?
In the diaphysis (shaft); it develops bone at different times.
How does bone grow in width?
Through appositional growth; osteoblasts add bone matrix to the surface, and osteoclasts remove bone matrix from the inside.
What is the function of trabeculae in cancellous bone?
Resist force from multiple directions and spread force distally.
What does the term “superficial” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the surface of the skin.
What causes Osteoporosis?
More Osteoclast activity than Osteoblast activity, leading to a loss of cortical bone and thinning of trabeculae.
What does isotonic mean?
The solute concentration is balanced between the inside and outside of the cell.
What is the sagittal plane?
The plane that divides the body into left and right sections.
What does the term “distal” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the point of attachment or origin.
What is the main difference between the radius and ulna vs. the tibia and fibula?
The radius and ulna can supinate and pronate, allowing for wrist mobility, while the tibia and fibula provide stability with no pronation or supination.
Where are ion reserves primarily located?
In the bones of the skeleton.
What are the two key proteins that make up the myofilament?
Actin and myosin.
What is the function of fibrous joints?
To limit movement and provide stability, found in sutures of the skull and distal tibiofibular joint.
What is the primary function of muscle tissue?
Contracts to produce movement.
What does the term “inferior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Below or towards the feet.
What is the transverse plane?
The plane that divides the body into top and bottom sections.
What are the connections between the limbs and the axial skeleton?
The pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the pelvic girdle.
What are the classes of bones?
Long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
What is feedback in homeostasis?
When a controlled variable moves too far from the set point and the body responds to bring it back to normal.
Describe the different classes of bone in the human skeleton and explain how their shape relates to function.
Long bones (movement), short bones (weight-bearing), flat bones (muscle attachment and protection), irregular bones (varied functions).
Where does ion absorption occur?
Across the epithelial lining of the small intestine and colon.
What happens to a cell in an isotonic solution?
No net flow of water, cell remains stable.
What body parts are included in the lower limb?
Thigh, leg, and foot.
What happens to a cell in a hypotonic solution?
Water enters the cell, causing it to expand and possibly burst.
What are the two extracellular components of bone?
Organic (33%) and inorganic (67%).
What is the role of Osteoclasts?
They remove bone matrix.
What are the two main divisions of the human skeleton?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
Describe the structure and function of the vertebral column.
Made up of 24 vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx; supports the head and trunk, and allows muscle and ligament attachments.
What are myofibrils and what are they made of?
Bundles within muscle fibres made of repeating units called sarcomeres.
Where are Na+ and K+ ions located at rest?
Na+ is outside the cell, and K+ is inside the cell.
What percentage of a bone’s weight is cellular, and what are the types of cells involved?
2%; includes Osteogenic cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, and Osteoclasts.
How does bone maintain homeostasis?
By balancing Osteoblast and Osteoclast activity to regulate bone formation and destruction.
What is diffusion?
Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
What is required to maintain bone homeostasis?
Adequate dietary calcium and moderate exercise.
What is the correct anatomical position?
Upright, facing forwards, feet together, palms facing forwards.
What is the primary function of skeletal muscle?
To apply force to bones to control posture and body movements, mostly under voluntary control.
Describe the structure of compact bone.
Dense outer surfaces (periosteum), visible foramina for blood supply, made up of osteons with circumferential lamellae.
What do muscle fibres, fascicles, and muscles contain?
Many blood vessels and nerves, sheathed in connective tissue.
At what point in the cross-bridge cycle does the myofilament slide?
When the myosin head uses its stored energy to pull on the actin filament.
What does the term “superior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Above or towards the head
What is recruitment in muscle force generation?
The process of activating more muscle fibres to produce more force.
Describe cartilaginous joints.
Made of fibrocartilage, allow some movement (e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis).
What is the role of Osteocytes?
They recycle protein and minerals from the matrix.
What happens when many action potentials are fired in rapid sequence?
A sustained release of calcium, sustained actin-myosin interaction, and sustained contraction (summation).
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and its function?
A membrane network that stores and releases calcium (Ca2+) during muscle contraction.
What are some examples of set-points in homeostasis?
Temperature, ion concentrations (calcium, potassium, sodium), blood sugar levels, and fluid balance.
Describe the three types of joints.
Fibrous (least movement, provides stability), Cartilaginous (some movement, connected by fibrocartilage), and Synovial (most movement, made of various tissues).
Which tissues would you find in your knee joint?
Connective tissue (including cartilage and bone), muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
What does the term “posterior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Towards the back of the body.
Describe the microanatomy of tissues in joints.
Hyaline cartilage resists compression; fibrocartilage resists tension and compression; DFCT resists tension.
What are the functions of epithelial tissue?
Covers exposed surfaces, lines internal passageways and chambers, forms secretory glands, provides physical protection, controls permeability, provides sensation, and produces specialized secretions.
What are the characteristics of slow muscle fibres?
They supply steady force and are slow to tire.
Define and demonstrate terms of movements as related to joints.
Flexion/extension (sagittal plane), abduction/adduction (coronal plane), circumduction, rotation, pronation, and supination.
What is flexion?
Decreasing the angle between two body parts.
Which tissue is the most common in the body?
Muscle tissue (50%).
What creates the chemical and electrical gradients?
The distribution of Na+ and K+ ions across the cell membrane.
What types of connective tissue are there?
Connective tissue proper (loose: areolar, adipose, reticular; dense: dense regular, dense irregular, elastic), fluid connective tissue (blood and lymph), and supporting connective tissues (cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage; bone).
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
What is an electrical gradient?
Uneven distribution of charges across a membrane.
What makes up the organic component of bone?
Collagen and ground substance (proteoglycans); it resists tension.
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Fills internal spaces, provides structural support, stores energy, establishes a structural framework for the body, transports fluids and dissolved materials, protects delicate organs, supports, surrounds, and interconnects other types of tissues, stores energy (especially in the form of triglycerides), and defends the body from invading microorganisms.
What is a chemical gradient?
Uneven distribution of molecules across a membrane.
Describe long bones.
Longer than they are wide, with wider epiphyses and a longer diaphysis; act as levers for movement and are mostly limb bones.
What is homeostasis?
It supports normal function of body systems by maintaining conditions in the internal environment through regulatory mechanisms.
Describe the structure of cancellous bone.
Contains trabeculae (struts of lamella bone), marrow in cavities, and osteocytes in lacunae or on the surface.
What is the role of tendons in skeletal muscles?
Connect muscles to bones.
Which tissue includes blood and lymph?
Connective tissue.
What responses are coordinated by the Heat-Loss centre when body temperature rises?
Behavioral changes, vasodilation, shunting of blood to the skin, sweat production, and respiratory heat loss.
What does hypertonic mean?
Higher solute concentration outside the cell, causing water to leave the cell.
What is abduction?
Moving a limb towards the midline of the body.
Which tissue is the least common in the body?
Nervous tissue (2%).
What percentage of tissue in the human body is epithelial tissue?
3%
What is eversion?
Turning the sole of the foot away from the midline.
Describe the functions of the skeletal system.
Support, movement, protection, storage of minerals, and red blood cell formation.
What does the term “deep” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the surface of the skin.
Describe fibrous joints.
Made of DFCT, limit movement, provide stability (e.g., skull sutures).
What is the resting membrane potential?
The electrical gradient when the cell is at rest, with the inside of the cell more negatively charged than the outside.
What are the key soft tissues involved in joint movement?
Cartilage (hyaline and fibrocartilage) and DFCT (ligaments, tendons, and joint capsules).
What are muscle fibres and how are they organized in skeletal muscles?
Individual muscle cells that gather into bundles called fascicles, which bundle into muscles.
Where is smooth muscle found and is it under voluntary control?
Found in hollow organs (e.g., gut, blood vessels) and is not under voluntary control.
Define tissue and structure.
Tissue: Cells grouped together in an organized manner (e.g., DFCT). Structure: Something formed of a tissue (e.g., ligament).
What occurs during depolarization?
Positive ions enter the cell, signaling excitable cells.
How do atoms, molecules, cells, and tissues relate to each other?
Atoms combine to form molecules, which interact to form cells that can secrete and regulate. These cells and extracellular materials and fluids combine to form tissues.
How many bones are in the hands and feet?
Hands: 27 bones each (8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, 14 phalanges); Feet: 26 bones each (7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals, 14 phalanges).
What is the function of synovial joints?
To allow a lot of movement, found in most appendicular skeleton joints.
What event causes the cross-bridge to be released?
The binding of ATP to the myosin head.
What is the role of Osteoblasts?
They produce new bone matrix.
What happens to a cell in a hypertonic solution?
Water leaves the cell, causing it to shrink
What makes up the inorganic component of bone?
Hydroxyapatite and other calcium minerals; it makes bone hard and resistant to compression.
What does the term “proximal” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the point of attachment or origin.
What are some adaptations for bipedalism in humans?
Hands-free movement, less stability in hands, and fingers adapted for manipulation and precision.
What is tetanus in muscle contraction?
The maximal signaling and contraction capability of the muscle.
What is circumduction?
A combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.
What is the role of Osteogenic cells?
They are stem cells that produce osteoblasts.
What does the term “medial” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the midline of the body.
What is extension?
Increasing the angle between two body parts.
What is the function of ligaments?
To connect bone to bone, resist tension, and restrict movement away from themselves.
What happens during bone remodelling?
Osteoblasts add bone matrix to the surface, and osteoclasts remove bone from the medullary cavity.
What occurs during repolarization?
Positive ions are removed from the cell, returning to resting membrane potential.
Describe the structure and function of the rib cage.
Made up of ribs and sternum; protects major organs like the heart and lungs.
What is the function of bone cells?
They respond to external forces, change shape, remodel, and repair themselves.
What is the sarcolemma?
The cell membrane of a muscle fibre.
What event allows a cross-bridge to form?
The presence of calcium.
What is dorsiflexion?
Bringing the toes up towards the face.
How do male and female pelvises differ?
Female pelvises have a more circular pelvic cavity, a larger pubic angle, and a more open pelvic outlet to accommodate childbirth.
What are the two types of bone tissue?
Compact bone and cancellous/trabecular bone.
What are transverse tubules (T-tubules) and their function?
Tube-like extensions of the sarcolemma that conduct electrical signals deep into the muscle fibre.
Which tissue allows information to be quickly sent around the body?
Nervous tissue.
Who is more likely to develop Osteoporosis and why?
Biological females, especially postmenopausal, due to a loss of oestrogen and lifestyle factors (lack of exercise, poor nutrition, alcohol, smoking).
What is pronation?
Turning the palms to face posteriorly
What is the function of tendons?
To connect muscle to bone, facilitate and control movement, and transmit muscle contraction to bone.
Where is cardiac muscle located and is it under voluntary control?
Located only in the heart and is not under voluntary control.
What body parts are included in the upper limb?
Arm, forearm, and hand.
