Lectures 1-12 Flashcards
Describe the knee’s movement and muscle activity during early swing.
The knee is in flexion to lift the foot, with hamstrings and gastrocnemius as agonists.
What is required to maintain bone homeostasis?
Adequate dietary calcium and moderate exercise.
What is the transverse plane?
The plane that divides the body into top and bottom sections.
Which tissue includes blood and lymph?
Connective tissue.
What is the general process of sampling?
Sampling involves selecting a subset of individuals from a population to represent the whole population.
What happens during bone remodelling?
Osteoblasts add bone matrix to the surface, and osteoclasts remove bone from the medullary cavity.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is muscle tissue?
50%
What are the three types of muscle contractions?
Concentric (muscle shortens), eccentric (muscle lengthens), and isometric (muscle length stays the same).
Where is cancellous bone found and what is its function?
Found in the epiphyses; it is light, spongy, and good for shock absorption.
Describe the three types of joints.
Fibrous (least movement, provides stability), Cartilaginous (some movement, connected by fibrocartilage), and Synovial (most movement, made of various tissues).
How does bone maintain homeostasis?
By balancing Osteoblast and Osteoclast activity to regulate bone formation and destruction.
What makes up the inorganic component of bone?
Hydroxyapatite and other calcium minerals; it makes bone hard and resistant to compression.
What percentage of a bone’s weight is cellular, and what are the types of cells involved?
2%; includes Osteogenic cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, and Osteoclasts.
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and its function?
A membrane network that stores and releases calcium (Ca2+) during muscle contraction.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is nervous tissue?
2%
What body parts are included in the lower limb?
Thigh, leg, and foot.
What occurs at the hip during late stance (toe off)?
The hip is in extension with gluteus maximus and hamstrings as agonists.
What happens when many action potentials are fired in rapid sequence?
A sustained release of calcium, sustained actin-myosin interaction, and sustained contraction (summation).
What are the characteristics of slow muscle fibres?
They supply steady force and are slow to tire.
What is diffusion?
Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
What is rotation in anatomical movement?
Movement around the long axis of a joint.
What is the coronal plane?
The plane that divides the body into front and back sections.
Define the basic pattern of the gait cycle.
The gait cycle includes the stance phase, swing phase, and transitions like heel strike and toe off.
What is the difference between location (central tendency) and spread in statistics?
Location (central tendency) measures where the data centers (e.g., mean, median), while spread measures the variability or dispersion of the data (e.g., range, standard deviation).
What are the classes of bones?
Long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
Describe the functions of the skeletal system.
Support, movement, protection, storage of minerals, and red blood cell formation.
What is tetanus in muscle contraction?
The maximal signaling and contraction capability of the muscle.
Describe the knee’s movement and muscle activity during late swing.
The knee moves from flexion into extension to prepare for heel strike, with quadriceps femoris as the agonist.
What does the term “posterior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Towards the back of the body.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The electrical gradient when the cell is at rest, with the inside of the cell more negatively charged than the outside.
Define tissue and structure.
Tissue: Cells grouped together in an organized manner (e.g., DFCT). Structure: Something formed of a tissue (e.g., ligament).
What event causes the cross-bridge to be released?
The binding of ATP to the myosin head.
Describe long bones.
Longer than they are wide, with wider epiphyses and a longer diaphysis; act as levers for movement and are mostly limb bones.
Define terms used to describe spatial and positional relationships of structures.
Anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.
Why do we take samples in statistics?
Samples are taken to make inferences about the entire population without having to study everyone.
When could bias influence sampling?
Bias could influence sampling when the selection process is not random or when certain groups are overrepresented or underrepresented.
What event allows a cross-bridge to form?
The presence of calcium.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the biceps brachii?
Origin: Scapula. Insertion: Radial tuberosity. Movement: Flexion at the shoulder and elbow, supination at the radioulnar joints.
Describe the microscopic structure of bones.
Compact bone has osteons with central canals, lamellae, lacunae, and canaliculi; cancellous bone has trabeculae with marrow and osteocytes.
What are muscle fibres and how are they organized in skeletal muscles?
Individual muscle cells that gather into bundles called fascicles, which bundle into muscles.
What are myofibrils and what are they made of?
Bundles within muscle fibres made of repeating units called sarcomeres.
What is adduction?
Moving a limb towards the midline of the body.
What is the main difference between the radius and ulna vs. the tibia and fibula?
The radius and ulna can supinate and pronate, allowing for wrist mobility, while the tibia and fibula provide stability with no pronation or supination.
What is the role of the plantarflexors at the ankle during standing?
To stabilize the joint as the line of gravity pushes it into dorsiflexion, consuming energy.
Describe flat bones.
Thin plates of compact bone (with some cancellous); they function for muscle attachment and protection (e.g., scapula, skull, sternum).
How can you recognize a normal curve?
A normal curve is a symmetric, bell-shaped curve centered around the mean.
What does the term “distal” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the point of attachment or origin.
What are the two main divisions of the human skeleton?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
What is a chemical gradient?
Uneven distribution of molecules across a membrane.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the hamstrings?
Origin: Ischium and femur (biceps femoris). Insertion: Tibia (semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and fibula (biceps femoris). Movement: Hip extension and knee flexion/rotation.
Where are the secondary ossification centers located, and what is their function?
In the epiphyses; they enable bone growth in length through the epiphyseal/growth plate.
What is abduction?
Moving a limb towards the midline of the body.
What occurs at the hip during late swing?
The hip remains in flexion, with iliopsoas and rectus femoris as agonists.
Where are Na+ and K+ ions located at rest?
Na+ is outside the cell, and K+ is inside the cell.
Where is the primary ossification center located, and what does it do?
In the diaphysis (shaft); it develops bone at different times.
Describe the structure of limb bones.
Each limb has a single proximal long bone (humerus/femur), two distal long bones (ulna and radius/tibia and fibula), and bones of the hands and feet.
What are the two extracellular components of bone?
Organic (33%) and inorganic (67%).
What is bony congruence?
The sum of bone surfaces that form an articulation, requiring more soft tissue where there is less congruence.
What does the axial skeleton consist of and what is its function?
Consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage; it protects vital organs.
What are the connections between the limbs and the axial skeleton?
The pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the pelvic girdle.
What anatomical feature helps maintain a stable, upright stance without energy expenditure at the hip?
The line of gravity being posterior to the hip joint, pushing it into extension and tightening the ligaments.
How does the spread of the sampling distribution change with sample size?
The spread of the sampling distribution decreases as the sample size increases.
Describe the muscle activity at the hip during mid stance.
The hip continues moving into extension, with gluteus maximus and hamstrings as the agonists.
What is the difference between passive ion channels and active pumps?
Passive channels allow ions to move down their gradient, active pumps use energy to move ions against their gradient.
What does hypertonic mean?
Higher solute concentration outside the cell, causing water to leave the cell.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the deltoid muscle?
Origin: Scapula and clavicle. Insertion: Deltoid tuberosity. Movement: Shoulder flexion (anterior fibers), abduction (lateral fibers), and extension (posterior fibers).
What is the role of Osteoblasts?
They produce new bone matrix.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the gluteus maximus?
Origin: Ilium and sacrum. Insertion: Femur. Movement: Hip extension.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the iliopsoas?
Origin: Iliac fossa and lumbar vertebrae. Insertion: Femur. Movement: Hip flexion.
Where is cardiac muscle located and is it under voluntary control?
Located only in the heart and is not under voluntary control.
What is circumduction?
A combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.
Describe fibrous joints.
Made of DFCT, limit movement, provide stability (e.g., skull sutures).
What describes the sampling distribution for comparing two groups?
The sampling distribution for comparing two groups is centered on the difference between their population means and its spread is determined by the standard errors of the two samples.
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Fills internal spaces, provides structural support, stores energy, establishes a structural framework for the body, transports fluids and dissolved materials, protects delicate organs, supports, surrounds, and interconnects other types of tissues, stores energy (especially in the form of triglycerides), and defends the body from invading microorganisms.
What body parts are included in the upper limb?
Arm, forearm, and hand.
Describe cartilaginous joints.
Made of fibrocartilage, allow some movement (e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis).
Describe the knee’s position and muscle activity during late stance.
The knee is in extension with hamstrings and gastrocnemius preparing for the next movement.
What does the term “superficial” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the surface of the skin.
Where is compact bone found and what is its function?
Found in the diaphysis; it is strong and good at transmitting force in one direction.
What occurs during depolarization?
Positive ions enter the cell, signaling excitable cells.
How does the length-tension relationship affect muscle strength?
Each muscle has an optimal length where it is strongest, with changing overlap between actin and myosin filaments affecting strength.
Describe a bone pathology related to lack of homeostasis.
Osteoporosis, caused by more Osteoclast activity than Osteoblast activity, leading to thinning trabeculae and increased fracture risk.
Describe the ankle’s position and muscle activity during mid swing.
The ankle is in dorsiflexion to allow toe clearance, with tibialis anterior as the agonist.
What are the key characteristics used to describe the distributions of population, sample, and sampling distribution?
Population is described by mean and standard deviation, sample by sample mean and sample standard deviation, and sampling distribution by the population mean (if unbiased) and standard error.
What is inversion?
Turning the sole of the foot towards the midline.
What is the role of triceps surae during mid stance?
It continues to move the ankle into plantarflexion.
What muscles are active at the hip during early swing?
Iliopsoas and rectus femoris as agonists, with gluteus maximus and hamstrings controlling the swing rate.
What happens to a cell in an isotonic solution?
No net flow of water, cell remains stable.
