Lectures 1-5 Flashcards
What does the axial skeleton consist of and what is its function?
Consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage; it protects vital organs.
Where is the primary ossification center located, and what does it do?
In the diaphysis (shaft); it develops bone at different times.
What responses are coordinated by the Heat-Loss centre when body temperature rises?
Behavioral changes, vasodilation, shunting of blood to the skin, sweat production, and respiratory heat loss.
Describe the microanatomy of tissues in joints.
Hyaline cartilage resists compression; fibrocartilage resists tension and compression; DFCT resists tension.
What is dorsiflexion?
Bringing the toes up towards the face.
What is the role of Osteocytes?
They recycle protein and minerals from the matrix.
What is the function of ligaments?
To connect bone to bone, resist tension, and restrict movement away from themselves.
Describe the three types of joints.
Fibrous (least movement, provides stability), Cartilaginous (some movement, connected by fibrocartilage), and Synovial (most movement, made of various tissues).
What are movements in the sagittal plane?
Flexion and extension.
Where are the secondary ossification centers located, and what is their function?
In the epiphyses; they enable bone growth in length through the epiphyseal/growth plate.
What does the term “inferior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Below or towards the feet.
Describe the structure of cancellous bone.
Contains trabeculae (struts of lamella bone), marrow in cavities, and osteocytes in lacunae or on the surface.
Where is cancellous bone found and what is its function?
Found in the epiphyses; it is light, spongy, and good for shock absorption.
What is the function of fibrous joints?
To limit movement and provide stability, found in sutures of the skull and distal tibiofibular joint.
Why is knowing terminology important in anatomy?
It allows effective communication and avoids vague descriptions or directions.
What is flexion?
Decreasing the angle between two body parts.
Which tissues would you find in your knee joint?
Connective tissue (including cartilage and bone), muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
Describe the structure of limb bones.
Each limb has a single proximal long bone (humerus/femur), two distal long bones (ulna and radius/tibia and fibula), and bones of the hands and feet.
What structures are included in epithelial tissue?
Epithelia and glands (exocrine and endocrine).
What does the term “posterior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Towards the back of the body.
Which tissue includes blood and lymph?
Connective tissue.
What does the term “superficial” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the surface of the skin.
Describe the microscopic structure of bones.
Compact bone has osteons with central canals, lamellae, lacunae, and canaliculi; cancellous bone has trabeculae with marrow and osteocytes.
What does the term “distal” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the point of attachment or origin.
What is required to maintain bone homeostasis?
Adequate dietary calcium and moderate exercise.
What does the term “lateral” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the midline of the body.
What does the term “deep” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the surface of the skin.
What does the term “proximal” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the point of attachment or origin.
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Fills internal spaces, provides structural support, stores energy, establishes a structural framework for the body, transports fluids and dissolved materials, protects delicate organs, supports, surrounds, and interconnects other types of tissues, stores energy (especially in the form of triglycerides), and defends the body from invading microorganisms.
What is extension?
Increasing the angle between two body parts.
How many bones are in the hands and feet?
Hands: 27 bones each (8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, 14 phalanges); Feet: 26 bones each (7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals, 14 phalanges).
What is the role of Osteoblasts?
They produce new bone matrix.
Describe the structure and function of the skull.
Made up of the cranium and facial bones; protects the brain and supports sensory organs.
What is the function of cartilaginous joints?
To allow some movement, found in intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis.
What are some examples of set-points in homeostasis?
Temperature, ion concentrations (calcium, potassium, sodium), blood sugar levels, and fluid balance.
What is the sagittal plane?
The plane that divides the body into left and right sections.
Which tissue is the least common in the body?
Nervous tissue (2%).
What is the main difference between the radius and ulna vs. the tibia and fibula?
The radius and ulna can supinate and pronate, allowing for wrist mobility, while the tibia and fibula provide stability with no pronation or supination.
Define terms used to describe spatial and positional relationships of structures.
Anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.
How is bone homeostasis maintained?
Balance between Osteoblast and Osteoclast activity, allowing constant bone formation and destruction.
What happens during bone remodelling?
Osteoblasts add bone matrix to the surface, and osteoclasts remove bone from the medullary cavity.
What are the functions of nervous tissue?
Conducts electrical impulses and carries information.
What are the functions of epithelial tissue?
Covers exposed surfaces, lines internal passageways and chambers, forms secretory glands, provides physical protection, controls permeability, provides sensation, and produces specialized secretions.
What are the classes of bones?
Long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
What is plantarflexion?
Pointing the toes towards the ground.
What is the coronal plane?
The plane that divides the body into front and back sections.
What are the key soft tissues involved in joint movement?
Cartilage (hyaline and fibrocartilage) and DFCT (ligaments, tendons, and joint capsules).
Describe the pectoral girdle.
Made up of the clavicle and scapula; provides stability and muscle attachments.
What body parts are included in the upper limb?
Arm, forearm, and hand.
What is adduction?
Moving a limb towards the midline of the body.
What does the term “anterior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Towards the front of the body.
How does bone grow in width?
Through appositional growth; osteoblasts add bone matrix to the surface, and osteoclasts remove bone matrix from the inside.
Describe long bones.
Longer than they are wide, with wider epiphyses and a longer diaphysis; act as levers for movement and are mostly limb bones.
Which tissue forms glands?
Epithelial tissue.
Describe the functions of the skeletal system.
Support, movement, protection, storage of minerals, and red blood cell formation.
What is the function of tendons?
To connect muscle to bone, facilitate and control movement, and transmit muscle contraction to bone.
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
What is homeostasis?
It supports normal function of body systems by maintaining conditions in the internal environment through regulatory mechanisms.
What is the function of bone cells?
They respond to external forces, change shape, remodel, and repair themselves.
What is the correct anatomical position?
Upright, facing forwards, feet together, palms facing forwards.
What responses are coordinated by the Heat-Gain centre when body temperature lowers?
Behavioral changes, vasoconstriction, reduced sweat production, shivering, and goosebumps.
Describe flat bones.
Thin plates of compact bone (with some cancellous); they function for muscle attachment and protection (e.g., scapula, skull, sternum).
What is the difference in structure between compact and cancellous bone?
Compact bone has an osteon structure; cancellous bone has a trabecular structure.
What is eversion?
Turning the sole of the foot away from the midline.
What is the function of trabeculae in cancellous bone?
Resist force from multiple directions and spread force distally.
What are the components of an osteon?
Central canal (with blood vessels and nerves), lamellae (cylinders of ECM), lacunae (for osteocytes), and canaliculi (channels for osteocytes).
How does bone maintain homeostasis?
By balancing Osteoblast and Osteoclast activity to regulate bone formation and destruction.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is epithelial tissue?
3%
What percentage of tissue in the human body is muscle tissue?
50%
What is an osteon, and what is its function?
A lengthwise unit in compact bone; provides a pathway for nutrients to cells in the ECM.
Describe the structure of compact bone.
Dense outer surfaces (periosteum), visible foramina for blood supply, made up of osteons with circumferential lamellae.
Who is more likely to develop Osteoporosis and why?
Biological females, especially postmenopausal, due to a loss of oestrogen and lifestyle factors (lack of exercise, poor nutrition, alcohol, smoking).
What are the connections between the limbs and the axial skeleton?
The pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the pelvic girdle.
Describe the general principles of bone growth.
Bone grows in length at epiphyseal plates and in width through appositional growth involving osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
What makes up the inorganic component of bone?
Hydroxyapatite and other calcium minerals; it makes bone hard and resistant to compression.
What is the primary function of muscle tissue?
Contracts to produce movement.
What types of connective tissue are there?
Connective tissue proper (loose: areolar, adipose, reticular; dense: dense regular, dense irregular, elastic), fluid connective tissue (blood and lymph), and supporting connective tissues (cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage; bone).
Describe the structure and function of the rib cage.
Made up of ribs and sternum; protects major organs like the heart and lungs.
What are some adaptations for bipedalism in humans?
Hands-free movement, less stability in hands, and fingers adapted for manipulation and precision.
What is DFCT, and what are its characteristics?
Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue; contains fibroblasts, collagen, and some elastin, resists tension, and has little vascularity.
What does the term “superior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Above or towards the head
How do atoms, molecules, cells, and tissues relate to each other?
Atoms combine to form molecules, which interact to form cells that can secrete and regulate. These cells and extracellular materials and fluids combine to form tissues.
What is circumduction?
A combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.
What is the role of Osteogenic cells?
They are stem cells that produce osteoblasts.
What are the two extracellular components of bone?
Organic (33%) and inorganic (67%).
What body parts are included in the lower limb?
Thigh, leg, and foot.
What are the two types of bone tissue?
Compact bone and cancellous/trabecular bone.
What is pronation?
Turning the palms to face posteriorly
What is the function of synovial joints?
To allow a lot of movement, found in most appendicular skeleton joints.
Describe the structure and function of the vertebral column.
Made up of 24 vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx; supports the head and trunk, and allows muscle and ligament attachments.
How do male and female pelvises differ?
Female pelvises have a more circular pelvic cavity, a larger pubic angle, and a more open pelvic outlet to accommodate childbirth.
What are the two main divisions of the human skeleton?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
Describe cartilaginous joints.
Made of fibrocartilage, allow some movement (e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis).
What makes up the organic component of bone?
Collagen and ground substance (proteoglycans); it resists tension.
What is bony congruence?
The sum of bone surfaces that form an articulation, requiring more soft tissue where there is less congruence.
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
Support, movement, protection, storage of minerals, and red blood cell formation.
Which tissue allows information to be quickly sent around the body?
Nervous tissue.
What percentage of a bone’s weight is cellular, and what are the types of cells involved?
2%; includes Osteogenic cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, and Osteoclasts.
What does the term “medial” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the midline of the body.
What is supination?
Turning the palms to face anteriorly.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is nervous tissue?
2%
What is the function of fibrocartilage?
To resist tension and compression, act as a shock absorber, and deepen articular surfaces.
What does the appendicular skeleton consist of and what is its function?
Consists of the limb bones; it is important for movement.
Describe the pelvic girdle.
Made up of the two hip bones and the sacrum; supports weight-bearing.
Describe a bone pathology related to lack of homeostasis.
Osteoporosis, caused by more Osteoclast activity than Osteoblast activity, leading to thinning trabeculae and increased fracture risk.
Which tissue is the most common in the body?
Muscle tissue (50%).
Where is compact bone found and what is its function?
Found in the diaphysis; it is strong and good at transmitting force in one direction.
What is the transverse plane?
The plane that divides the body into top and bottom sections.
What is inversion?
Turning the sole of the foot towards the midline.
What is the function of hyaline cartilage?
To resist compression, mold bone surfaces at joints, and enable frictionless movement.
Describe the gross structure of bones and explain how they reflect their functions.
Compact bone is strong for force transmission; cancellous bone is light and spongy for shock absorption.
What is feedback in homeostasis?
When a controlled variable moves too far from the set point and the body responds to bring it back to normal.
Describe irregular bones.
Various shapes and functions; they often have foramina (holes).
What is rotation in anatomical movement?
Movement around the long axis of a joint.
What causes Osteoporosis?
More Osteoclast activity than Osteoblast activity, leading to a loss of cortical bone and thinning of trabeculae.
What is feedforward in homeostasis?
Anticipation of an event that will alter a controlled variable, leading to actions that minimize the effect.
Which tissue can be divided into skeletal, cardiac, and smooth?
Muscle tissue.
What is the role of Osteoclasts?
They remove bone matrix.
What are movements in the coronal plane?
Abduction and adduction.
Define tissue and structure.
Tissue: Cells grouped together in an organized manner (e.g., DFCT). Structure: Something formed of a tissue (e.g., ligament).
Define and demonstrate terms of movements as related to joints.
Flexion/extension (sagittal plane), abduction/adduction (coronal plane), circumduction, rotation, pronation, and supination.
What is abduction?
Moving a limb towards the midline of the body.
Describe the different classes of bone in the human skeleton and explain how their shape relates to function.
Long bones (movement), short bones (weight-bearing), flat bones (muscle attachment and protection), irregular bones (varied functions).
Describe short bones.
Nearly equal in width and length, mostly cancellous bone; they are weight-bearing (e.g., carpals and tarsals).
Identify the major bones of the skeleton, and understand why/how some are sexually dimorphic.
Major bones include the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, and limb bones. Sexual dimorphism is seen in the pelvis to accommodate childbirth in females.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is connective tissue?
45%
Describe fibrous joints.
Made of DFCT, limit movement, provide stability (e.g., skull sutures).
