Lectures 1-11 Flashcards
What structures are included in epithelial tissue?
Epithelia and glands (exocrine and endocrine).
Why do we take samples in statistics?
Samples are taken to make inferences about the entire population without having to study everyone.
What is the role of tendons in skeletal muscles?
Connect muscles to bones.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the tibialis anterior?
Origin: Tibia. Insertion: Tarsals. Movement: Ankle dorsiflexion.
What is adduction?
Moving a limb towards the midline of the body.
Where are ion reserves primarily located?
In the bones of the skeleton.
What happens to a cell in an isotonic solution?
No net flow of water, cell remains stable.
What is inversion?
Turning the sole of the foot towards the midline.
Which tissue can be divided into skeletal, cardiac, and smooth?
Muscle tissue.
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
What does the appendicular skeleton consist of and what is its function?
Consists of the limb bones; it is important for movement.
What are movements in the sagittal plane?
Flexion and extension.
Describe long bones.
Longer than they are wide, with wider epiphyses and a longer diaphysis; act as levers for movement and are mostly limb bones.
What is supination?
Turning the palms to face anteriorly.
How do atoms, molecules, cells, and tissues relate to each other?
Atoms combine to form molecules, which interact to form cells that can secrete and regulate. These cells and extracellular materials and fluids combine to form tissues.
What happens at the knee during mid stance?
The knee moves from extension into slight flexion, with hamstrings and gastrocnemius as agonists.
What is required to maintain bone homeostasis?
Adequate dietary calcium and moderate exercise.
Where are the secondary ossification centers located, and what is their function?
In the epiphyses; they enable bone growth in length through the epiphyseal/growth plate.
What are some examples of set-points in homeostasis?
Temperature, ion concentrations (calcium, potassium, sodium), blood sugar levels, and fluid balance.
What is the ankle’s position during late swing?
The ankle is in dorsiflexion, with tibialis anterior as the agonist and triceps surae stabilizing the joint for heel strike.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is epithelial tissue?
3%
Describe the microscopic structure of bones.
Compact bone has osteons with central canals, lamellae, lacunae, and canaliculi; cancellous bone has trabeculae with marrow and osteocytes.
Describe fibrous joints.
Made of DFCT, limit movement, provide stability (e.g., skull sutures).
What is the resting membrane potential?
The electrical gradient when the cell is at rest, with the inside of the cell more negatively charged than the outside.
What does the term “anterior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Towards the front of the body.
Define terms used to describe spatial and positional relationships of structures.
Anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.
Describe the muscle activity at the hip during mid stance.
The hip continues moving into extension, with gluteus maximus and hamstrings as the agonists.
Describe the ankle’s position and muscle activity during mid swing.
The ankle is in dorsiflexion to allow toe clearance, with tibialis anterior as the agonist.
What is the difference in structure between compact and cancellous bone?
Compact bone has an osteon structure; cancellous bone has a trabecular structure.
What makes up the inorganic component of bone?
Hydroxyapatite and other calcium minerals; it makes bone hard and resistant to compression.
What is dorsiflexion?
Bringing the toes up towards the face.
Describe the structure of cancellous bone.
Contains trabeculae (struts of lamella bone), marrow in cavities, and osteocytes in lacunae or on the surface.
What occurs at the hip during late swing?
The hip remains in flexion, with iliopsoas and rectus femoris as agonists.
What do muscle fibres, fascicles, and muscles contain?
Many blood vessels and nerves, sheathed in connective tissue.
What are the classes of bones?
Long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
What are the two key proteins that make up the myofilament?
Actin and myosin.
What event causes the cross-bridge to be released?
The binding of ATP to the myosin head.
What does hypertonic mean?
Higher solute concentration outside the cell, causing water to leave the cell.
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
Support, movement, protection, storage of minerals, and red blood cell formation.
What does the term “lateral” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the midline of the body.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the triceps brachii?
Origin: Scapula and humerus. Insertion: Olecranon process of ulna. Movement: Extension at the shoulder and elbow.
What is pronation?
Turning the palms to face posteriorly
How is the mean calculated?
The mean is calculated by dividing the sum of all values by the total number of observations.
What determines the function of a muscle?
The length, number, and arrangement of muscle fibers.
Where is smooth muscle found and is it under voluntary control?
Found in hollow organs (e.g., gut, blood vessels) and is not under voluntary control.
What are the characteristics of fast muscle fibres?
They produce a lot of force quickly but fatigue quickly.
What is the function of tendons?
To connect muscle to bone, facilitate and control movement, and transmit muscle contraction to bone.
Describe the structure and function of the rib cage.
Made up of ribs and sternum; protects major organs like the heart and lungs.
What is tetanus in muscle contraction?
The maximal signaling and contraction capability of the muscle.
What is osmosis?
Movement of water across a membrane to equalize solute concentration.
What responses are coordinated by the Heat-Gain centre when body temperature lowers?
Behavioral changes, vasoconstriction, reduced sweat production, shivering, and goosebumps.
Define tissue and structure.
Tissue: Cells grouped together in an organized manner (e.g., DFCT). Structure: Something formed of a tissue (e.g., ligament).
What is the role of Osteocytes?
They recycle protein and minerals from the matrix.
Describe the functions of the skeletal system.
Support, movement, protection, storage of minerals, and red blood cell formation.
What are the two main divisions of the human skeleton?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
What is the role of Osteogenic cells?
They are stem cells that produce osteoblasts.
What is the role of Osteoclasts?
They remove bone matrix.
How is bone homeostasis maintained?
Balance between Osteoblast and Osteoclast activity, allowing constant bone formation and destruction.
What is the role of Osteoblasts?
They produce new bone matrix.
What is recruitment in muscle force generation?
The process of activating more muscle fibres to produce more force.
What is the primary function of muscle tissue?
Contracts to produce movement.
What occurs during repolarization?
Positive ions are removed from the cell, returning to resting membrane potential.
What is the function of fibrous joints?
To limit movement and provide stability, found in sutures of the skull and distal tibiofibular joint.
Define the basic pattern of the gait cycle.
The gait cycle includes the stance phase, swing phase, and transitions like heel strike and toe off.
Describe the structure of limb bones.
Each limb has a single proximal long bone (humerus/femur), two distal long bones (ulna and radius/tibia and fibula), and bones of the hands and feet.
What are some adaptations for bipedalism in humans?
Hands-free movement, less stability in hands, and fingers adapted for manipulation and precision.
What is the function of ligaments?
To connect bone to bone, resist tension, and restrict movement away from themselves.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the triceps surae (gastrocnemius and soleus)?
Origin: Femur condyles (gastrocnemius) and tibia/fibula (soleus). Insertion: Calcaneus via Achilles tendon. Movement: Knee flexion (gastrocnemius) and ankle plantarflexion.
What is the main difference between the radius and ulna vs. the tibia and fibula?
The radius and ulna can supinate and pronate, allowing for wrist mobility, while the tibia and fibula provide stability with no pronation or supination.
Where is cancellous bone found and what is its function?
Found in the epiphyses; it is light, spongy, and good for shock absorption.
Describe the different classes of bone in the human skeleton and explain how their shape relates to function.
Long bones (movement), short bones (weight-bearing), flat bones (muscle attachment and protection), irregular bones (varied functions).
Which tissue includes blood and lymph?
Connective tissue.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the quadriceps femoris?
Origin: Ilium (rectus femoris) and femur (vastus muscles). Insertion: Tibial tuberosity. Movement: Hip flexion (rectus femoris) and knee extension.
What is the primary site of ion loss?
The kidney.
What does the term “superficial” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the surface of the skin.
What is DFCT, and what are its characteristics?
Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue; contains fibroblasts, collagen, and some elastin, resists tension, and has little vascularity.
What makes up the organic component of bone?
Collagen and ground substance (proteoglycans); it resists tension.
What happens to a cell in a hypotonic solution?
Water enters the cell, causing it to expand and possibly burst.
What happens if there is an imbalance of water and solute concentrations across the cell membrane?
Water will move to balance the concentrations, affecting cell size and integrity.
What does the term “medial” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the midline of the body.
Describe short bones.
Nearly equal in width and length, mostly cancellous bone; they are weight-bearing (e.g., carpals and tarsals).
What is bony congruence?
The sum of bone surfaces that form an articulation, requiring more soft tissue where there is less congruence.
Describe the pectoral girdle.
Made up of the clavicle and scapula; provides stability and muscle attachments.
What is the coronal plane?
The plane that divides the body into front and back sections.
What is the ankle’s position during late stance, and which muscle is the agonist?
The ankle is in full plantarflexion with triceps surae as the agonist for propulsion.
Describe the structure of compact bone.
Dense outer surfaces (periosteum), visible foramina for blood supply, made up of osteons with circumferential lamellae.
Describe the general principles of bone growth.
Bone grows in length at epiphyseal plates and in width through appositional growth involving osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
What causes Osteoporosis?
More Osteoclast activity than Osteoblast activity, leading to a loss of cortical bone and thinning of trabeculae.
What are the two types of bone tissue?
Compact bone and cancellous/trabecular bone.
What occurs at the hip during late stance (toe off)?
The hip is in extension with gluteus maximus and hamstrings as agonists.
What creates the chemical and electrical gradients?
The distribution of Na+ and K+ ions across the cell membrane.
What is the correct anatomical position?
Upright, facing forwards, feet together, palms facing forwards.
What does the term “posterior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Towards the back of the body.
Which tissue forms glands?
Epithelial tissue.
How do male and female pelvises differ?
Female pelvises have a more circular pelvic cavity, a larger pubic angle, and a more open pelvic outlet to accommodate childbirth.
Describe the gross structure of bones and explain how they reflect their functions.
Compact bone is strong for force transmission; cancellous bone is light and spongy for shock absorption.
What are muscle fibres and how are they organized in skeletal muscles?
Individual muscle cells that gather into bundles called fascicles, which bundle into muscles.
What are the key soft tissues involved in joint movement?
Cartilage (hyaline and fibrocartilage) and DFCT (ligaments, tendons, and joint capsules).
Define and demonstrate terms of movements as related to joints.
Flexion/extension (sagittal plane), abduction/adduction (coronal plane), circumduction, rotation, pronation, and supination.
What are the connections between the limbs and the axial skeleton?
The pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the pelvic girdle.
What is the general process of sampling?
Sampling involves selecting a subset of individuals from a population to represent the whole population.
What percentage of a bone’s weight is cellular, and what are the types of cells involved?
2%; includes Osteogenic cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, and Osteoclasts.
What is the difference between passive ion channels and active pumps?
Passive channels allow ions to move down their gradient, active pumps use energy to move ions against their gradient.
What does the term “deep” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the surface of the skin.
What happens during bone remodelling?
Osteoblasts add bone matrix to the surface, and osteoclasts remove bone from the medullary cavity.
Describe flat bones.
Thin plates of compact bone (with some cancellous); they function for muscle attachment and protection (e.g., scapula, skull, sternum).
What are transverse tubules (T-tubules) and their function?
Tube-like extensions of the sarcolemma that conduct electrical signals deep into the muscle fibre.
What anatomical feature helps maintain a stable, upright stance without energy expenditure at the hip?
The line of gravity being posterior to the hip joint, pushing it into extension and tightening the ligaments.
What occurs at the hip during early stance?
The hip moves from flexion into extension with the help of gluteus maximus and hamstrings.
Identify the major bones of the skeleton, and understand why/how some are sexually dimorphic.
Major bones include the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, and limb bones. Sexual dimorphism is seen in the pelvis to accommodate childbirth in females.
What does isotonic mean?
The solute concentration is balanced between the inside and outside of the cell.
What is flexion?
Decreasing the angle between two body parts.
What are the functions of epithelial tissue?
Covers exposed surfaces, lines internal passageways and chambers, forms secretory glands, provides physical protection, controls permeability, provides sensation, and produces specialized secretions.
What is extension?
Increasing the angle between two body parts.
Where does ion absorption occur?
Across the epithelial lining of the small intestine and colon.
What is the difference between a population and a sample?
A population includes all individuals of interest, while a sample is a subset of the population used for study.
Describe the structure and function of the vertebral column.
Made up of 24 vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx; supports the head and trunk, and allows muscle and ligament attachments.
How many bones are in the hands and feet?
Hands: 27 bones each (8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, 14 phalanges); Feet: 26 bones each (7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals, 14 phalanges).
What does hypotonic mean?
Higher solute concentration inside the cell, causing water to enter the cell.
What muscles stabilize the knee during early stance?
The quadriceps femoris, hamstrings, and gastrocnemius.
How do skeletal muscles cause movement at synovial joints?
By attaching to bones via tendons and shortening to create movement.
How does the ankle move during early stance?
The ankle moves from dorsiflexion to plantarflexion with triceps surae as the agonist and tibialis anterior controlling the foot drop rate.
What are the two determinants of skeletal muscle force generation?
The number of muscle fibres recruited and the rate of muscle stimulation.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is connective tissue?
45%
How do humans achieve energy-efficient standing?
By having specific anatomical features at joints that allow for minimal muscular support, mainly at the ankle joint.
What is the primary function of skeletal muscle?
To apply force to bones to control posture and body movements, mostly under voluntary control.
What are the two extracellular components of bone?
Organic (33%) and inorganic (67%).
What is diffusion?
Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
What is the function of trabeculae in cancellous bone?
Resist force from multiple directions and spread force distally.
What is the function of cartilaginous joints?
To allow some movement, found in intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis.
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Fills internal spaces, provides structural support, stores energy, establishes a structural framework for the body, transports fluids and dissolved materials, protects delicate organs, supports, surrounds, and interconnects other types of tissues, stores energy (especially in the form of triglycerides), and defends the body from invading microorganisms.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the hamstrings?
Origin: Ischium and femur (biceps femoris). Insertion: Tibia (semimembranosus and semitendinosus) and fibula (biceps femoris). Movement: Hip extension and knee flexion/rotation.
Who is more likely to develop Osteoporosis and why?
Biological females, especially postmenopausal, due to a loss of oestrogen and lifestyle factors (lack of exercise, poor nutrition, alcohol, smoking).
Describe a bone pathology related to lack of homeostasis.
Osteoporosis, caused by more Osteoclast activity than Osteoblast activity, leading to thinning trabeculae and increased fracture risk.
Where is compact bone found and what is its function?
Found in the diaphysis; it is strong and good at transmitting force in one direction.
Which tissue allows information to be quickly sent around the body?
Nervous tissue.
Where are Na+ and K+ ions located at rest?
Na+ is outside the cell, and K+ is inside the cell.
Where is cardiac muscle located and is it under voluntary control?
Located only in the heart and is not under voluntary control.
What is the sarcolemma?
The cell membrane of a muscle fibre.
What is the ankle’s position during early swing?
The ankle is in dorsiflexion to allow toe clearance, with tibialis anterior as the agonist.
How does the line of gravity affect the knee joint in bipedal standing?
It is anterior to the knee joint, pushing it into extension and locking it without energy expenditure.
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and its function?
A membrane network that stores and releases calcium (Ca2+) during muscle contraction.
What is the function of bone cells?
They respond to external forces, change shape, remodel, and repair themselves.
Describe the knee’s position and muscle activity during late stance.
The knee is in extension with hamstrings and gastrocnemius preparing for the next movement.
What is the function of synovial joints?
To allow a lot of movement, found in most appendicular skeleton joints.
What is the function of fibrocartilage?
To resist tension and compression, act as a shock absorber, and deepen articular surfaces.
What is homeostasis?
It supports normal function of body systems by maintaining conditions in the internal environment through regulatory mechanisms.
What is the function of hyaline cartilage?
To resist compression, mold bone surfaces at joints, and enable frictionless movement.
Describe the knee’s movement and muscle activity during early swing.
The knee is in flexion to lift the foot, with hamstrings and gastrocnemius as agonists.
Describe the structure and function of the skull.
Made up of the cranium and facial bones; protects the brain and supports sensory organs.
What happens at the hip during mid swing?
The hip remains in flexion, with iliopsoas and rectus femoris as agonists, and gluteus maximus and hamstrings controlling the swing rate.
What is the difference between location (central tendency) and spread in statistics?
Location (central tendency) measures where the data centers (e.g., mean, median), while spread measures the variability or dispersion of the data (e.g., range, standard deviation).
What is an electrical gradient?
Uneven distribution of charges across a membrane.
How does bone maintain homeostasis?
By balancing Osteoblast and Osteoclast activity to regulate bone formation and destruction.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is muscle tissue?
50%
What are the components of an osteon?
Central canal (with blood vessels and nerves), lamellae (cylinders of ECM), lacunae (for osteocytes), and canaliculi (channels for osteocytes).
What is the sagittal plane?
The plane that divides the body into left and right sections.
What are the three classes of levers in the body?
First-class (stabilizes joint position), second-class (overcomes heavy loads), and third-class (large range of movement and speed).
Describe the three types of joints.
Fibrous (least movement, provides stability), Cartilaginous (some movement, connected by fibrocartilage), and Synovial (most movement, made of various tissues).
What is the role of the plantarflexors at the ankle during standing?
To stabilize the joint as the line of gravity pushes it into dorsiflexion, consuming energy.
Which tissues would you find in your knee joint?
Connective tissue (including cartilage and bone), muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
What is an osteon, and what is its function?
A lengthwise unit in compact bone; provides a pathway for nutrients to cells in the ECM.
How does the length-tension relationship affect muscle strength?
Each muscle has an optimal length where it is strongest, with changing overlap between actin and myosin filaments affecting strength.
What types of connective tissue are there?
Connective tissue proper (loose: areolar, adipose, reticular; dense: dense regular, dense irregular, elastic), fluid connective tissue (blood and lymph), and supporting connective tissues (cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage; bone).
What event allows a cross-bridge to form?
The presence of calcium.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the biceps brachii?
Origin: Scapula. Insertion: Radial tuberosity. Movement: Flexion at the shoulder and elbow, supination at the radioulnar joints.
What is the knee’s position during mid swing, and which muscles are active?
The knee is in flexion with hamstrings and gastrocnemius as agonists.
What are sarcomeres and what do they contain?
Repeating units in myofibrils made of contractile proteins: actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments).
What does the term “inferior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Below or towards the feet.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the deltoid muscle?
Origin: Scapula and clavicle. Insertion: Deltoid tuberosity. Movement: Shoulder flexion (anterior fibers), abduction (lateral fibers), and extension (posterior fibers).
What are the characteristics of slow muscle fibres?
They supply steady force and are slow to tire.
What is eversion?
Turning the sole of the foot away from the midline.
What percentage of tissue in the human body is nervous tissue?
2%
What are the functions of nervous tissue?
Conducts electrical impulses and carries information.
What are movements in the coronal plane?
Abduction and adduction.
Where is the primary ossification center located, and what does it do?
In the diaphysis (shaft); it develops bone at different times.
What does the term “proximal” mean in anatomical terminology?
Closer to the point of attachment or origin.
What happens to a cell in a hypertonic solution?
Water leaves the cell, causing it to shrink
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the iliopsoas?
Origin: Iliac fossa and lumbar vertebrae. Insertion: Femur. Movement: Hip flexion.
What is abduction?
Moving a limb towards the midline of the body.
What is feedforward in homeostasis?
Anticipation of an event that will alter a controlled variable, leading to actions that minimize the effect.
Describe the microanatomy of tissues in joints.
Hyaline cartilage resists compression; fibrocartilage resists tension and compression; DFCT resists tension.
Describe the pelvic girdle.
Made up of the two hip bones and the sacrum; supports weight-bearing.
What is the transverse plane?
The plane that divides the body into top and bottom sections.
What is a chemical gradient?
Uneven distribution of molecules across a membrane.
Which tissue is the most common in the body?
Muscle tissue (50%).
What are myofibrils and what are they made of?
Bundles within muscle fibres made of repeating units called sarcomeres.
What is the origin, insertion, and movement of the gluteus maximus?
Origin: Ilium and sacrum. Insertion: Femur. Movement: Hip extension.
What are the three types of muscle contractions?
Concentric (muscle shortens), eccentric (muscle lengthens), and isometric (muscle length stays the same).
At what point in the cross-bridge cycle does the myofilament slide?
When the myosin head uses its stored energy to pull on the actin filament.
What is rotation in anatomical movement?
Movement around the long axis of a joint.
What does the term “superior” mean in anatomical terminology?
Above or towards the head
What is feedback in homeostasis?
When a controlled variable moves too far from the set point and the body responds to bring it back to normal.
What is plantarflexion?
Pointing the toes towards the ground.
What is circumduction?
A combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.
Describe the knee’s movement and muscle activity during late swing.
The knee moves from flexion into extension to prepare for heel strike, with quadriceps femoris as the agonist.
What body parts are included in the lower limb?
Thigh, leg, and foot.
What is the role of triceps surae during mid stance?
It continues to move the ankle into plantarflexion.
What body parts are included in the upper limb?
Arm, forearm, and hand.
What are the roles of agonist, antagonist, stabilizer, and neutralizer muscles?
Agonist creates movement, antagonist opposes movement, stabilizer holds a joint still, neutralizer prevents unwanted movement.
Describe cartilaginous joints.
Made of fibrocartilage, allow some movement (e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis).
What responses are coordinated by the Heat-Loss centre when body temperature rises?
Behavioral changes, vasodilation, shunting of blood to the skin, sweat production, and respiratory heat loss.
What muscles are active at the hip during early swing?
Iliopsoas and rectus femoris as agonists, with gluteus maximus and hamstrings controlling the swing rate.
Why is knowing terminology important in anatomy?
It allows effective communication and avoids vague descriptions or directions.
What happens when many action potentials are fired in rapid sequence?
A sustained release of calcium, sustained actin-myosin interaction, and sustained contraction (summation).
What does the axial skeleton consist of and what is its function?
Consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage; it protects vital organs.
Why are statistics important in health sciences?
Statistics help understand the health of the population, including the prevalence of diseases, risk factors, and the effectiveness of treatments.
What occurs during depolarization?
Positive ions enter the cell, signaling excitable cells.
How does bone grow in width?
Through appositional growth; osteoblasts add bone matrix to the surface, and osteoclasts remove bone matrix from the inside.
Describe irregular bones.
Various shapes and functions; they often have foramina (holes).
Which tissue is the least common in the body?
Nervous tissue (2%).
What does the term “distal” mean in anatomical terminology?
Farther from the point of attachment or origin.
