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Biology 201 > Lecture Exam #2 > Flashcards

Lecture Exam #2 Flashcards

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1
Q

two types of cells

A

1) prokaryote (smaller, unicell)

2) Eukaryote (more complex)

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2
Q

what are prokaryote cells more commonly known as?

A

bacteria

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3
Q

how big are prokoryote cells?

A

very small- 10-100 microns

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4
Q

what type of cells are prokoryote cells

A

single-celled (unicellular) and filamentous (strings of single cells)

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5
Q

prokaryote lifestyle charctericstics (3) (UCF)

A

1) unicellular: all alone
2) colony- forms a film
3) filamentous- forms a chain of cells

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6
Q

prokaryote nutrition charactertistics (3) (PDD)

A

1) photosynthetic (energy from sunlight)
2) disease causing (feed on living things)
3) decomposers (feed on dead things- plants or animals )

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7
Q

characteristics of eukaryotes (4) (MHCI)

A

1) more complicated
2) have organelles
3 )can be multicellular
4) includes animals and plant cells

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8
Q

what type of membranes are organelles?

A

membrane-bound cell parts

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9
Q

mini “organs” that have unique structures and functions

A

organelles

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10
Q

where are organelles found?

A

in cyotplasm

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11
Q

does a plant or animal cells have a rigid cell wall and why?

A

plant- to prevent bursting

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12
Q

similarities between plant and animals cells (8) (NNREGMC)

A

Both have:

1) cell membrane
2) nucleus
3) nucleolus
4) ribosomes
5) ER
6) Golgi
7) mitochondria
8) cytoskeleton

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13
Q

differences between animal and plant cells (4) (APPP)

A

1) animal cells have centrioles and plants do not
2) plant cells have a cell wall and animals do not
3) plant cells have chloroplasts and animals do not
4) plant cells have one big vacuole and animals do not

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14
Q

what does plant cell’s one big vacuole help with?

A

its shape

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15
Q

what can the whole cell of a eukaryote cell be?

A

specialized for one job

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16
Q

what can cells work together as in eukaryote cells?

A

tissues

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17
Q

what can tissues work together as in eukaryote cells?

A

organs

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18
Q

characteristics of prokaryotes (3) (SFA)

A

1) simple and easy to grow
2) fast reproduction
3) all the same

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19
Q

characteristics of eukaryotes (3) (CMC)

A

1) can specialize
2) multicellulality
3) can build large bodies

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20
Q

what did many scientists theorize about how organelles evolved?

A

that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryote ancestors

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21
Q

what did Lynn Margulis popularize in 1981?

A

“endosymbioent theory”

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22
Q

in endosymbioyent theory what does a prokaryote eat?

A

a smaller prokartyote

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23
Q

what does the smaller prokaryote that the prokaryote ate evolve for?

A

as a way to avoid being digested, and lives inside its new “host” cell like a pet

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24
Q

inside

A

endo

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25
Q

friend

A

symbioent

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26
Q

what do the small prokaryote that can do photosynthesis evolve into?

A

chloroplasts and “pay” their host with glucose

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27
Q

what can the smaller prokaryote that can do aerobic respiration evolve into?

A

mitochandria

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28
Q

what does the prokaryote that evolves into mitochandria convert the glucose into?

A

energy the cell can use

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29
Q

who benefits from the endosymbioent relationship?

A

both the host and the symboient

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30
Q

the origin of new species, is at the focal point of evolutionary theory

A

speciation

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31
Q

what must an evolutionary theory explain about speciation?

A

how new species originate and how populations evolve

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32
Q

consists of changes in allele frequency in a population over time (molecular level)

A

microevolution

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33
Q

refers to broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level

A

macroevolution

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34
Q

states that a species is a group of populations who members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring

A

biological species concept

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35
Q

what does the biological species concept say that species do NOT have to do?

A

breed successfully with other populations

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36
Q

in the biological species concept what holds the phenotype of a population together?

A

gene flow between populations

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37
Q

what is the biological species concept based on?

A

the potential to interbreed rather than on physical similarity

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38
Q

the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring

A

reproductive isolation

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39
Q

offspring of crosses between different species

A

hybrids

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40
Q

what can reproductive isolation be classified by?

A

whether factors act before or after fertilization

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41
Q

types of prezygotic reproductive barriers (5) (HTBMG)

A

1) habitat isolation
2) temporal isolation
3) behavioral isolation
4) mechanical isolation
5) Gamatic isolation

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42
Q

types of postzygotic reproductive barriers (3) (RRH)

A

1) reduced hybrid viability
2) reduced hybrid fertility
3) hybrid breakdown

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43
Q

what does prezygotic barriers block fertilization from?

A

1) impeding different species from attempting to mate
2) preventing the succesful completion of mating
3) hindering fertilization if mating is successful

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44
Q

two species encounter each other rarely or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers

A

habitat isolation

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45
Q

species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons or different years cannot mix their gametes

A

temporal isolation

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46
Q

courtship rituals and other behaviors uique to a species are effective barriers

A

behavioral isolation

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47
Q

morphological differences can prevent mating

A

mechanical isolation

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48
Q

sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species

A

gamete isolation

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49
Q

prevents the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult

A

postzygotic barriers

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50
Q

genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrids development

A

reduced hybrid viability

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51
Q

even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile

A

reduced hybrid fertility

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52
Q

some first generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile

A

hybrid breakdown

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53
Q

what CAN’T the biological species concept be applied to?

A

fossils or asexual organisms (including prokaryotes)

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54
Q

what does the biological species theory emphasize?

A

the absence of gene flow

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55
Q

what can gene flow occur between?

A

distinct species

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56
Q

what is an example of gene flow occurring between distinct species?

A

grizzly bears and polar bears can mate to produce “grolar bears”

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57
Q

defines a species by structural features

A

morphological species concept

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58
Q

what does morphilogical species concept apply to and rely on?

A

it applies to sexual and asexual species but relies on subjective criteria

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59
Q

views a species in terms of its ecological niche

A

ecological species concept

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60
Q

what does ecological species concept apply to emphasize?

A

it applies to sexual and asexual species and emphasizes the role of disruptive selection

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61
Q

defines a species as the smallest group of individuals in a phylogenetic tree

A

phylogenetic species concept

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62
Q

what does phylogenetic species concept apply to and what can it be difficult to determine?

A

it applies to sexual and asexual species but can be difficult to determine the degree of difference required for separate species

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63
Q

two ways speciation can occur

A

1) allopatric speciation

2) sympatric speciation

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64
Q

when a population forms a new species while georgraphically isolated from its parent population

A

allopatric speciation

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65
Q

when a subset of population forms a new species without geographic separation

A

sympatric speciation

66
Q

what is interupted or reduced with allopatric speciaton?

A

gene flow

67
Q

what is an example of allpatric speciation?

A

the flightless cormorant of the Galapagos likely originated from a flying species on the mainland

68
Q

what does the defention of the barrier with allopatric speciation depend on?

A

the ability of a population to disperse

69
Q

what is an example of the process of allopatric speciation depending on the ability of a population to disperse?

A

a canyon may create a barrier for small rodents, but not birds, cayotes or pollen

70
Q

with allopatric speciation how may separate population evolve?

A

through mutation, natural selection and genetic drift

71
Q

what may arise in allopatric speciation as a result of genetic divergence?

A

reproductive isolation

72
Q

what is an example of reproductive isolation occuring?

A

mosquitofish in the Bahamas comprise several isolated populations in different ponds

73
Q

what type of regions typically have more species?

A

regions with many geographic barriers

74
Q

when does reproductive isolation between populations generally increase?

A

as the distance between them increases between them

75
Q

what is an example of reproductive isolation increasing as the distance between the population increases?

A

reproductive isolation increases between dusky salamanders that live further apart

76
Q

what are barriers to reproduction and what are they not?

A

intrinsic, separation itself is not a biological barrier

77
Q

what type of population does sympatric speciation occur?

A

geographically overlapping populations

78
Q

the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division

A

polyploidy

79
Q

what is polyploidy much more common with?

A

plants rather than animals

80
Q

an individual with more than 2 chromosome sets, derived from one species

A

autopolyploid

81
Q

a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species

A

allopolyploid

82
Q

what is an example of polyploids?

A

many important crops, (oats, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, wheat)

83
Q

what can sympatric speciation also result from?

A

the appearance of new ecological niches

84
Q

what is an example of sympatric speciation resulting from the appearance of new ecological niches?

A

the North American maggot fly can live on native hawthorn trees as well as recently introduced apple trees

85
Q

what can drive sympatric speciation?

A

sexual selection

86
Q

what has sexual selection for mates of different colors likely contributed to?

A

speciation in cichlid fish in Lake Victoria

87
Q

in sympatric speciation, what isolates a subset of a population without a geographic separation from the parent species?

A

a reproductive barrier

88
Q

what can sympatric speciation result from?

A

polyploidy, natural selection or sexual selection

89
Q

a region in which members of a different species mate and produce hybrids

A

hybrid zone

90
Q

what are hybrids the result of?

A

the mating between species with incomplete reproductive barriers

91
Q

what can a hybrid zone occur in?

A

a single band where adjacent species meet

92
Q

what is an example of a hybrid zone occuring in a single band where adjacent species meet?

A

two species of toad in the genus Bombina interbreed in a long and narrow hybrid zone

93
Q

what do hybrids often have?

A

reduced fitness compared with parent species

94
Q

how can the distribution of hybrid zones be more complex?

A

if parent species are found in patches within the same region

95
Q

what are the 3 possible outcomes when closely related species meet in a hybrid zone (RFS)

A

1) reinforcement
2) fusion
3) stability

96
Q

barriers occur when hybrids are less fit than parent species

A

reinforcement

97
Q

over time what happens to the rate of hybridization?

A

it decreases

98
Q

where reinforcement occurs, what should be stronger for sympatric than allpatric species/

A

reproductive barriers

99
Q

what is an example of reinforcement occuring and sympatric species are stronger?

A

in populations, flycatchers, males are more similar in allopatric population than sympatric

100
Q

with fusion, if hybrids are fit ars parents what can there be between species?

A

substantial gene flow

101
Q

with fusion, if gene flow is great enough, what can the parent species fuse into?

A

a single species

102
Q

whatis an example of fusion?

A

researchers think that pollution in Lake Victoria has reduced the ability of female cichlids to distinguish males of different species

103
Q

with stability, what can extensive gene flow from outside the hybrid zone do?

A

overwhelm selection for increased reproductive isolation inside the hybrid zone

104
Q

how can broad patterns of the time course of speciation be studied?

A

using the fossil record, morphological data or molecular data

105
Q

examples of what the fossil record includes

A

1) species that appear suddenly
2) persist essentially unchanged for some time
3) then aparantly dissapear

106
Q

a term coined by Niles Edlredge and Stephen Jay Gould to describe distinct period of apparant stasis punctuated by sudden change

A

punctuated equilibria

107
Q

what does the punctuated equilbrium model contrast with?

A

a model of gradual of gradual change in a species existence.

108
Q

two models for the tempo of speciation

A

1) punctuated pattern

2) gradual pattern

109
Q

what does the punctuated pattern in the fossil record and evidence from lab studies suggest?

A

that speciation can be rapid

110
Q

what is an example of speciation being rapid in the punctuated pattern?

A

the sunflower Helianthus anomalus originated from the hybridization of two other sunflower species

111
Q

what can the interval between speciation range from?

A

4,000 years (some cichlids) to 40 million years (some beetles) with an average of 6.5 million years

112
Q

the cumulative effect of many speciation and extinction events

A

macroevolution

113
Q

what may have produced very simple cells through a sequence of stages?

A

chemical and physical processes on early Earth

114
Q

what are the stages that led to the origin of living cells? (4) (AJPO)

A

1) abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
2) joining of these small molecules into macromolecules
3) packaging of molecules into protocells
4) origin of self-replicating molecules

115
Q

despite the four stages that led to living cells was the evidence convincing that early atmosphere was in fact reducing?

A

no

116
Q

instead of forming in the atmosphere what may have been synthesized near volcanoes or deep-sea vents

A

the first organic compounds

117
Q

what did the Miller-Urey-type experiments demonstrate?

A

that organic molecules could have formed with various possible atmospheres

118
Q

were past organisms different from those now alive?

A

yes, very

119
Q

what did the fossil record show?

A

macroevolutionary changes over large time scales

120
Q

what are example of macroevolutionary changes over large time scales (3) (EIO)

A

1) the emergence of terrestrial verterbrates
2) the impact of mass extinctions
3) the origin of flight in birds

121
Q

when did Earth form along with the rest of the solar system?

A

4.6 billion years ago

122
Q

what likely vaporized water and prevented seas from forming before about 4 billion years ago?

A

bombardment of earth by rocks and ice

123
Q

what did earth’s early atmosphere likely contain?

A

water vapor and chemicals released by volcanic eruptions (nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen)

124
Q

in the 1920’s what did A.I Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane hypothesize?

A

that the early atmosphere was a reducing environment

125
Q

in 1953, what did Stanley Miller and Harold Urey conduct?

A

lab experiments that showed that the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules in a reducing atmosphere is possible

126
Q

refers to the sudden appearance of fossils ressembling modern animal phyla in the Cambrian period (535 to 525 million years ago)

A

the Cambrian explosion

127
Q

what animal phyla appeared even earlier than the cambrian explosion? (3) (SCM)

A

1) sponges
2) cnidarians
3) molluscs

128
Q

what did the cambrian explosion provide?

A

the first evidence of predator-prey interactions

129
Q

what does the fossil record show about most species that have ever lived?

A

that they are now extinct

130
Q

what can extinctions be caused by?

A

changes to a specie’s environment

131
Q

what can cause a mass extinction?

A

at times, the rate of extinction increased dramatically

132
Q

what is mass extinction the result of?

A

disruptive global environmental changes

133
Q

what has many effects on living organisms?

A

continental drift

134
Q

examples of continental drift

A

1) a continent’s climate can change as it moves north or south
2) separation of land masses can lead to allopatric speciation

135
Q

2 examples of mass extinctions

A

1) the cretaceous mass extinction

2) the permian extinction

136
Q

what can mass extinction alter?

A

ecological communities and the niches available to organisms

137
Q

what can take from 5-10 million years as a consequence of mass extinction?

A

the diversity to recover following a mass extinction

138
Q

what can mass extinctions change?

A

the types of organisms found in ecological communities

139
Q

what is an example of mass extinctions changing the types of organisms found in ecological communities?

A

the percentage of marine organisms that were predators increased after the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions

140
Q

a mass extinction that occured 65.5 million years ago where organisms that went extinct include about half of all marine species and many terrestrial plants and animals, including dinosaurs

A

the creataceous mass extinction

141
Q

a mass extinction that defines the boundary between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic era 251 million years ago. occured in less than 500,000 years and ccaused the extinction of about 96 % of marine animal species

A

the permian extinction

142
Q

factors that may have contributeed to these mass extinctions (3) (IGA)

A

1) intense volcanoism in what is now Serbia
2) global warming and ocean acidification resulting from the emission of large amoutns of CO2 from volcanoes
3) anoxic conditions resulting from nutrient enrichment of ecosystems

143
Q

what did mammals undergo after the extinction of terrestrial dinosaurs

A

adaptive radiation

144
Q

what allowed for the expansion of mammals in diversity and size?

A

the dissapearance of dinosaurs (except birds)

145
Q

other notable radiations (5) (PLLIT)

A

1) photosynthetic prokaryotes
2) large predators in the Cambrian
3) land plants
4) insects
5) tetrapods

146
Q

what type of lineages can be lost during mass extinctions?

A

ones with novel and advantagous features

147
Q

by eliminating so many species, what did mass extinction pave the way for?

A

adaptive radiations

148
Q

the rapid evolution of diversly adapted species from a common ancestor

A

adaptive radiation

149
Q

what may adaptive radiations follow?

A

1) mass extinctions
2) the evolution of novel characteristics
3 )the colinization of new regions

150
Q

what can occur when organisms colonize new environments with little competition?

A

adaptive radiations

151
Q

what is one of the world’s great showcases of adaptive radiation?

A

Hawaii islands

152
Q

what is most atmospheric oxygen?

A

of biological origin

153
Q

how did O2 produced by oxygenic photosynthesis react?

A

with disolved iron and precipated out to form banded iron formations

154
Q

what did the prokaryotic ancestors of mitochondria and plastids probably gain entry to?

A

the host cells as undigested prey or internal parasites

155
Q

what would have the host and endosymboients become in the process of becoming more independent?

A

a single organism

156
Q

supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events

A

serial endosymbiosis

157
Q

characteristics of what eukaryotic cells have (4) (NMEC)

A

1) nuclear envelope
2) mitochondria
3) endoplasmic reticulum
4) cytoskeleton

158
Q

proposes that mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts and related organelles) were formerly small prokaryotes living within larger host cells

A

endosymbioent theory

159
Q

where does an endosymboient cell live within?

A

a host cell

160
Q

key evidence supporting an endosymbiotic origin of mitochdonria and plastids (4) (IDTT)

A

1) inner membranes are similar to plasma membranes of prokaryotes
2) division and DNA structure is similar in these organelles and some prokaryotes
3) the orgnaelles transcribe and translate their own DNA
4) their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribosomes

Biology 201 (18 decks)

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