LAB Midterm Part 2 Flashcards
supplies O2 for cellular respiration and disposes CO2 to a region by simple diffusion
gas exchange
the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases.
partial pressure
what are partial pressures also applied to gasses dissolved in?
liquids such as water
what do gases undergo from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure?
net diffusion
characteristics of partial pressure at sea level
1) 760 mmHg
2) 78% nitrogen
3) 21 % oxygen
4)
what is the formula for figuring out oxygen in partial pressure?
21% X 760mmHg= 160 mmHg
what animals use air or water as the O2 source for
respiratory medium
in a given volume what is there less of available in water than air?
O2
what does obtaining O2 from water require?
greater efficiency than air breathing
what type of surface do animals require and for what?
large, moist respiratory surface for exchange of gases between their cells and the respiratory medium, either air or water
how does gas exchange across respiratory surfaces take place by?
diffusion
do respirartory surfaces vary by animal and what can they include?
yes, skin, gills, trachae and lungs
outfolding of the body that create a large surface area for gas exchange in aquatic animals
gills
moves the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface in aquatic animals
ventilation
how do aquatic animals move?
through water or move water over their gills for ventilation
used by fish gills where blood flows in the opposite direction to water passing over the gills; blood is always less saturated with o2 than the water it meets
countercurrent exchange
in fish gills, how much of the O2 dissolved in water is removed as water passes over the respiratory surface?
more than 80%
characteristics of ventillation in fish (2) (SO)
1) some swim continously
2) other fill buccal cavity while opercula is closed, then close mouth and open opercula
system found in insects that consists of a network of branching tubes throughout the body
tracheal system
what do the tracheal tubes supply?
O2 directly to body cells
are the respiratory and circulatory system separate in insects?
yes
infolding of the body surface
lungs
what does the circulatory system transport gases between whether open or closed?
the lungs and the rest of the body
what do the size and complexity of lungs correlate with?
an animal’s metabolic rate
in mammals what type of system do they have?
branching ducts conveying air to the lungs
what happens to air in mammals?
its inhaled through the nostrils and filtered, warmed, humidified and sampled for odors
directs air to the lungs and food to the stomach
pharynx
steps of swallowing (2) (MT)
1) moves the larynx upward
2) tips the epiglottis over the glottis in the pharynx to prevent food from entering the trachea
where does air pass through?
the pharynx, the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles to the aveoli where gas exchange occurs
where does exhaled air pass over?
the vocal cords in the larynx to create sounds
what lines the epithelium of the air ducts and moves particles up to the pharynx?
cilia and mucus
cleans respiratory system and allows particles to be swallowed in the esophagus
“mucus escalator”
where does gas exchange take place?
the alveoli
air sacs at the tips of the bronchioles
alveoli
what does oxygen do?
diffuses through the moist film of the epithelium and into capillaries
what does carbon dioxide do?
diffuses from the capillaries across the epitherlium and into the air space
what do alveoli lack making them susceptible to contamination?
cilia
in surface tension what is water?
polar
in surface tension what is the attraction between molecules on the surface?
higher than interior molecules
the process that ventilates the lungs, the alternate inhalation and exhalation of air
breathing
air is forced into lungs because pressure outside lungs is greater
positive pressure breathing
air is drawn into lungs because pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure
negative pressure breathing
what type of breathing does an amphibian such as a frog ventilate its lungs by and how?
positive pressure breathing, which forces air down the trachea
how many air sacs do birds have that function as bellows that keep air flowing through the lungs helping them breath?
8 or 9
how does air travel in birds?
through the lungs in one direction
what does the passage of air through the entire system of lungs and air sacs in birds require?
2 cycles of inhalation and exhalation
what is ventilation in birds?
highly efficient
how do mammals ventilate their lungs and how?
by negative pressure breathing which pulls air into the lungs
when does lung volume increase in mammals?
as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract
the volume of air inhaled with each breath
tidal volume
maximum tidal volume
vital capacity
after exhalation, the air that remains in the lungs
a residual volume
measures speed of exhalation and inhalation
spirometry
what is the average tidal volume, vital capacity and residual volume?
tidal: 500mL, vital: 3-5 L and Residual: can’t be measure by spirometry (1200 mg)
in humans, what is breathing usually regulated by?
involuntary mechanisms
where are the breathing control center found in humans?
the medulla oblongata of the brain
regulates the rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid
medulla
what do sensors in the aorta and cartoid arteries monitor?
concentrations in the blood
what do the sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries signal?
the breathing control centers, which respond as needed
where does additional modulation of breathing take place?
the pons, next to the medulla
what do the metabolic demands of many organisms require?
that the blood transport large quantities of O2 and CO2
what does blood arriving in the lungs have?
a low partial pressure of O2 and a high partial pressure of CO2 relative to air in the alveoli
in the alveoli, what does O2 and CO2 do?
diffuse into the blood and CO2 diffuses into the air
in tissue capillaries, what does partial pressure gradients favor?
diffusion of O2 into the interstital fluid and CO2 into the blood.
proteins that transport oxygen and greatly increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry (hemoglobin)
respiratory pigments
what do anthropods and molluscs have
hemocyanin with copper as the oxygen-binding component
what do most vertibrates and some invertebrates use?
hemoglobin
in veterbrates, what is hemoglobin contained within?
erythrocytes
what color is blood in mollusks and arthropods when oxygenated?
bright blue
characteristics of hemoglobin in oxygen transport (6) (FEEEFB)
1) four globin subunits
2) each subunit has a heme group
3) each heme has an iron atom
4) each subunit can bind one oxygen molecule
5) four in total per hemoglobin
6) binds oxygen in a cooperative fashion
how does hemoglobin bind oxygen in a cooperative fashion?
affinity increases with each bound oxygen
what does the hemoglobin dissociation curve show?
that a small change can result in a large change in delivery of O2
CO2 produced during cellular respiration lowers blood pH and decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2
bohr shift
what plays a minor role in transport of CO2 and asists in buffering of blood?
hemoglobin
when the first oxygen molecule binds to hemoglobin, the structure of protein changes so that the next molecule of oxygen can find easier
cooperative binding
what happens during carbon dioxide transport?
some CO2 from respiring cells diffuses into the blood and is transported in blood, bound to hemoglobin
what does the remainder of CO2 diffuse into and what does it dissociate?
erythrocytes and racts with water to form H2CO3 which disassociates H+ and bicarbonate ions
in the lungs what does the relative partial pressures of CO2 favor?
the net diffusion of CO2 out of the blood
characteristics of Carbon minoxide
1) CO does bind to the heme group (not heme molecule)
2) finds at 200 times the strength of O2 which is how CO2 poisoning occurs
characteristics of crocodile icefish (4) (NOLC)
1) no hemoglobin
2) oxygen dissolves in blood plasma
3) low metabolic rate
4) cold waters have more oxygen
what do diving mammals have that allow them to perform extraordinary feats?
evolutionary adapatations
examples of evolutionary adaptations of mammals?
1) weddell seals in Antarctica can remain under water for 20min to an hour
2) elephant seals can dive to 1500 m and remain underwater for 2 hrs
what do animals with evolutionary adaptations have?
a high blood to body volume ratio
what do deep-diving air breathers do?
stockpile O2 and deplete it slowly
diving mamals store oxygen in their muscles
myoglobin proteins
what can diving mammals also do with oxygen?
conserve O2
how does diving mammals conserve O2? (3) (CDD)
1) by changing their buoyancy to glide passively
2) by decreasing blood supply to muscles
3) by deriving ATP in muscles from fermentation once O2 is depleted
what do physiological systems of animals operate in?
a fluid environment
what must relative concentrations of water and solution be maintained within?
narrow limits
controls solute concentrations and balances water gain and loss
osmoregulation
what type of environments do desert and marine animals face?
desicating environments that can quickly deplete water
how do freshwater animals survive?
by conserving solutes and absorbing salts from their surroundings
rids the body of nitrogenous metabolites and other waste products
excretion
what is osmoregulation based largely on?
balancing the uptake and loss of water and solutes
what is the driving force for movement of solutes and water?
a concentration gradient of one or more solutes across the plasma membrane
the way water enters and leaves cells
osmosis
the solute concentration of a solutions determines the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane (doesn’t let all fluids through)
osmolarity
when in two solutions, water molecules will cross the membrane at equal rates in both directions
isoosmotic
the net flow of water if two solutions differ in osmoloraity
hyposoosmotic (less concentrated)
if two solutions differ in somolarity with higher concentraion
hypersmotic solution
consisting of some marine animals, are isoosomotic with their surrounding and do NOT regulate their osmolarity
osmoconformers
expend energy to control water uptake and loss in a hypersmotic or hypoosmotic environment
osmoregulators
types of animals with osmoregulatory challenges and mechanisms
1) osmoconformers
2) osmoregulators
what are most animals when it comes to osmoregulariatory mechanisms?
stenohaline
animals that cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity
stenohaline
what type of animals can survive large functions in external osmolarity?
Euryhaline animals
what are most marine invertebrates?
osmoconformers
what are many marine verterbrates and some marine inverterbrates?
osmoregulators
what are marine bony fishes to seawater?
hypoosmotic
how do marine bony fishes balance water loss?
by drinking large amounts of sea water and eliminating the ingested salts through their gills and kidneys
how do freshwater animals constantly take in water balance?
by osmosis from their hypoosmotic environment
how do freshwater animals lose salts and maintain water?
by diffusion and they maintain water balance by drinking almost no water and excreting large amounts of dilute urine
how are salts lost by diffusion in freshwater animals replaced?
in foods and by uptake across the gills
what type of waters do some aquatic invertebrates live in?
temporary ponds
what do aquatic vertebrates that live in temporary ponds lose?
almost all their body water and survive in a dormant state
adaption to temporary ponds and becoming in a dormant state (hybernation)
anhydrobiosis
what is key to survival on land?
adaptions to reduce water loss
what do body coverings of most terrestrial animals help?
prevent dehydration
what do desert animals get major water savings from?
simple anatomical features and behaviors such as a nocturnal lifestyle
how do land animals maintain water balance?
by eating moist food and producing water metabolically through cellular respiration
what must osmoregulatrors do to maintain osmotic gradients?
expend energy
How does the amount of energy expended to maintain osmotic gradients differ based on? (3) (HHW)
1) how different the animals osmolarity is from its surroundings (desert vs. rainforest)
2) how easily water solutes move across the animals surface (water diffusing cells vs. drinking)
3) the work required to pump solutes across the membrane
what do animals regulate which bathes their cells?
the solute content of body fluid
epithilial cells specialized for moving solutes in specific directions
transport epithelia
how are transport epithelia typically arranged?
into complex tubular networks
what is an example of transport epithelia?
nasal glands in marine birds
how do nasal glands in marine birds display transport epithelia?
they remove excess sodium chloride from the blood
what may greatly affect water balance in an animal?
the type and quantity of animal’s waste products
what is among the most significant wastes in an animal?
nitrogeneous breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
what do some animals convert toxic ammonia (NH3) to?
less toxic compounds prior to excretion
types of nitrogenous waste excreted by animals (3) (AUU)
1) ammonia
2) urea
3) uric acid
what do the three nitrogenous wastes excreted by animals differ in?
toxicity and the energy costs of producing them
what do animals that excrete nitrogenous wastes as ammonia need access to and why?
lots of water to dilute the toxicity
what do animals do when they excrete ammonia?
they release it across the whole body surface
what do most terrestrial animals and many marine animals excrete that is less toxic than ammonia?
urea
where is urea produced in vertebrates?
in the liver
what carries urea to the kidneys where its excreted?
the circulatory system
is conversion of ammonia to urea energetically expensive?
yes
what does excretion of urea require less of than ammonia?
water
what type of nitrogenous wastes do insects, land snails and many reptiles including birds mainly excrete?
uric acid
is uric acid toxic and what does it not do?
it’s relatively nontoxic and does not dissolve readily in water
what is uric acid secreted as?
a paste with little water loss
is uric acid more or less energetically expensive to producce than urea
more
what type of animals excrete ammonia?
most aquatic animals including most bony fishes
what type of animals excrete urea?
mammals, most amphibians, sharks and some bony fishes
what type of animals excrete uric acid?
many reptiles (including birds), insects, land snails
what do the kinds of nitrogenous wastes excreted depend on?
an animal’s evolutionary history and habitat especially water availability
what is the amount of nitrogenous waste coupled to?
the animal’s energy budget
what do excretory systems regulate solute movement between?
internal fluids and the external environment
what are the excretory systems central to?
homeostasis
how do most excretory systems produce urine?
by refining a filtrate derived from body fluids
filtering of body fluids
filtration
reclaiming valuable solutes
resabsorption
adding nonessential solutes and wastes to filtrate
secretion
processed to filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes is released from the body
excretion
what type of systems vary widely among animal groups?
ones that perform basic excretory functions
what do systems that perform basic excretory function usually involve?
a complex network of tubules
a network of dead-end tubules connected to external openings
protonephridium
what are the smallest branches of a protonephridum capped by?
a cellular unit called flame bulb
what do protonephridum tubules excrete and function in?
a dilute fluid and function in osmoregulation
what do each segment of an earthworm have a pair of?
open-ended metanephridia
consists of tubules that collect coelomic fluid and produce dilute urine for excretion
metanephridia
what do metanephridia of earthworms function in?
excretion and osmoregulation
found in insects and other terrestrial arthopods. they remove nitrogenous wastes from hemolymph and function in osmoregulation
malppighian tubules
what type of waste matter do insects produce and what is it important to?
a relatively dry waste matter, mainly uric acid. It is an important adaption to terrestrial life
where can some terrestrial insects also take up water?
from the air
the excretory organs of verterbrates. They function in both excretion and osmoregulation
kidneys
what are the numerous tubules of the kidneys?
highly organized
what does a verterbrate excretory system also include?
ducts and other structures that carry urine from the tubules out of the kidney and out of the body.
what part of the nephron does filtration take place?
in the Bowman’s capsule
what does the filtration in the Bowman’s capsule contain? (6) (SGAVNO)
1) salts
2) glucose
3) amino acids
4) vitamins
5) nitrogenous wastes
6) other small molecules
what part of the nephron does reasorption of ions, water and nutrients take place?
in the proximal tube
how are molecules transported from the filtrate into the intestitial fluid and then capillaries?
actively and passively
as the filtrate passes through the proximal tubule what happens to material to be excreted?
they become concentrated
what type of materials are actively secreted into the filtrate?
some toxic materials
after the proximal tube where does reabsorption of water continue through?
channels formed by aquaporin proteins
what is movement in the descending limb of the loop of henle driven by?
the high osmoloarity of the interstital fluid which is hpersmotic to the filtrate
when in the descending what does the filtration become?
increasingly concentrated
what happens in the ascending limb of the loop of henle?
salt but not water is able to diffuse from the tubule into the interstital fluid
what does the filtrate become in the asscending limb of the loop of henle?
increasingly dilute
what is very unique about the asscending limb of the loop of henle?
it’s impermiable to water
what does the distal tube in the nephron regulate?
the K+ and NACI concentrations of body fluid
what does the controlled movement of ions (H+ and HCO3) contribute to?
pH regulation
what does the collecting duct of the nephron carry the filtrate through?
the medulla to the renal pelvis
what is one of the most important tasks in the collecting duct?
reabsportion of solutes and water
what is urine to body fluids?
hypersmotic
what is urine more or less concentrated?
more
what is the main function of the descending limb?
water removal
what is the main function of the ascending limb?
salt removal
what is a key terrestrial adaption in mammals?
the mammalian kidney’ s ability to conserve water
what is the ony reason hypersmotic urine can be produced?
because considerable energy is expended to transport solutes against concentration gradients
what are the 2 primary solutes affecting osmolarity?
1) NACI
2) urea
what happens to the filtrate volume in the proximal tube?
it decreases as water and salt are reabsorped but osmolarity remains the same
as the filtrate flows to the descending limb of the loop of henle what does solutes become and why?
more concentrated because due to water leaving the tubule by osmosis
what does NACI diffusing from the ascending limb maintain?
a high osmolarity in the inestitial fluid of the renal medulla
why is energy expended in a mammal’s kidney?
to actively transport NACI from the filtrate in the upper part of the ascending limb
involves the loop of henle which maintains a high salt concentration in the kidney
countercurrent multiplyer system
what does the countercurrent multiplyer system allow the vasa recta to supply the kidney with?
nutrients, without interfering with the osmolarity gradient
in the collecting ducts what extracts water from the filtrate as it passes from the cortex to the medulla and encounters interstitial fluid of increasing osmolarity?
osmosis
what is urine produced to the interstital fluiod of the inner medulla?
isoosmotic but hpersmotic to bloodand intesterstital fluids elsewhere in the body
what is key to water conservation in terrestrial animals
the juxtamedullary nephron
what do mammals that inhabit dry environments vs. those in fresh water have?
in dry environments they have long loops of henle but in fresh water, they have relatively short loops
where do freshwater fishes conserve salt and that do they excrete?
in their distal tubules and excrete large volumes of very dilute urine
what is kidney function in amphibians similar to?
freshwater fishes
how do amphibians conserve water on land?
by reabsorbing water from the urinary bladder
what are mammals responding to when controllinig the volume and osmolarity of urine?
the changes in salt intake and water availability
what does a combination of nervous and hormonals controls manage?
the osmoregularity functions of the mammalian kidney
what does does the homonal and nervous control contribute to for blood pressure and blood volume?
homeostasis
what is another name for Antidiueretic Hormone (ADH)?
vasopressin
what does osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus monitor and regulate?
blood osmorality and regulate the reason of ADH from the posterior pituitary
what happens when osmolarity rises above its set point?
ADH releases into the blood stream increases
order of the way osmorality works (6) (NBHHDN)
1) normal blood osmorality
2) blood osmorality increases (after sweating- exercise)
3) hypothalamus triggers release of ADH
4) hypothalamus generates thirst
5) drink water
6) normal osmorality is restored
what does binding of ADH receptor molecules lead to a temporary increase of?
the number of aquaporin proteins in the membrane of collecting ducts
what does the binding of ADH receptor molecules reduce?
urine volume and lowers blood osmorality
what is alcohol or caffeine and why?
a diuretic because it inhibits the release of ADH
what does mutation of ADH productions cause?
severe dehydration and results in diabetes inspidus
part of a complex feedback circuit that functions in homeostasis
renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system (RAAS)
what causes the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) to release the enzyme renin?
a drop in blood pressure near the glomerulus
what does Renin trigger?
the formation of the peptide angiotensin II
how does RAAS differ from osmorality?
RAAS responds to blood pressure from dehydration
what raises blood pressure and decreases blood flow to the kidneys?
angiotensin II
what releases the hormone aldosterone?
angiotensin II
what does aldosterone increase?
blood volume and pressure
though ADH and RAAS both increase water absorbtion what does only RAAS respond to?
a decrease in blood volume
what type of inflow/outflow does freshwater animals have?
does not drink water, salt in H2O (active transport by gills)
what type of inflow outflow does marine bony fishes have?
drink water, salt in H2O salt out (active by gills)
what type inflow/outflow does terrrestrial verterbrates have?
drink water by mouth
what type of urine volume do marine fishes have?
large volume which is less concentrated than body fluids
what type of urine do marine bony fishes have?
small volume of water, urine is slightly less concentrated than body fluids
what type of urine do terrestrial vertebrates have?
moderate volume of urine, urine is more concentrated than body fluids s
how does the heart muscle pump blood?
via muscle contraction
if the cardiac muscle isn’t getting enough blood what happens?
your body isn’t getting the nutrients that your body needs to function such as oxygen
what do the coronary arteries do?
supply blood to the heart muscle
what can happen if coronary arteries become narrowed by fatty or mineralized deposits?
diseases such as atherorsclerosis can occur which can lead to high blood pressure leading to a heart attack
why are coronary arteries so easily blocked by floating emoblisms?
arteries already have thick walls and inflammation cause them to narrow more and can lead to a heart attack. they are much smaller compared to aorta
what is the timing of the contractions of the heart regulated by?
the sinoatrial (SA) node aka the pacemaker
how do action potentials get from muscle to muscle cell?
via a gap junction.
connects two cells
gap junction
what does it mean if an EKG shows a long delay between the P wave and the QRS complex?
the AV node is damaged between the atria and the ventricles of the heart
which of the four valves can be leaking with a heart murmur?
any of them but the mitral and aortic valves are most common
when is the sloshy sound of a heart murmur heard?
during ventricular systole
when is the dub sound heard?
during ventricular diastole
what do the chordae tendinae (heart strings) do?
they keep the valves closed
what does it mean if the valves are leaking?
that the chordae tendinae aren’t working causing a heart murmur
what can angioplasty and an insteration of a stent do?
it can remove the blockage of the arteries and restore normal blood flow
why would a stent be favorable over open heart surgery?
it’s less life threateneing and less risks of infection from incisions
