LAB Midterm Part 2 Flashcards
1
Q
supplies O2 for cellular respiration and disposes CO2 to a region by simple diffusion
A
gas exchange
2
Q
the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases.
A
partial pressure
3
Q
what are partial pressures also applied to gasses dissolved in?
A
liquids such as water
4
Q
what do gases undergo from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure?
A
net diffusion
5
Q
characteristics of partial pressure at sea level
A
1) 760 mmHg
2) 78% nitrogen
3) 21 % oxygen
4)
6
Q
what is the formula for figuring out oxygen in partial pressure?
A
21% X 760mmHg= 160 mmHg
7
Q
what animals use air or water as the O2 source for
A
respiratory medium
8
Q
in a given volume what is there less of available in water than air?
A
O2
9
Q
what does obtaining O2 from water require?
A
greater efficiency than air breathing
10
Q
what type of surface do animals require and for what?
A
large, moist respiratory surface for exchange of gases between their cells and the respiratory medium, either air or water
11
Q
how does gas exchange across respiratory surfaces take place by?
A
diffusion
12
Q
do respirartory surfaces vary by animal and what can they include?
A
yes, skin, gills, trachae and lungs
13
Q
outfolding of the body that create a large surface area for gas exchange in aquatic animals
A
gills
14
Q
moves the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface in aquatic animals
A
ventilation
15
Q
how do aquatic animals move?
A
through water or move water over their gills for ventilation
16
Q
used by fish gills where blood flows in the opposite direction to water passing over the gills; blood is always less saturated with o2 than the water it meets
A
countercurrent exchange
17
Q
in fish gills, how much of the O2 dissolved in water is removed as water passes over the respiratory surface?
A
more than 80%
18
Q
characteristics of ventillation in fish (2) (SO)
A
1) some swim continously
2) other fill buccal cavity while opercula is closed, then close mouth and open opercula
19
Q
system found in insects that consists of a network of branching tubes throughout the body
A
tracheal system
20
Q
what do the tracheal tubes supply?
A
O2 directly to body cells
21
Q
are the respiratory and circulatory system separate in insects?
A
yes
22
Q
infolding of the body surface
A
lungs
23
Q
what does the circulatory system transport gases between whether open or closed?
A
the lungs and the rest of the body
24
Q
what do the size and complexity of lungs correlate with?
A
an animal’s metabolic rate
25
in mammals what type of system do they have?
branching ducts conveying air to the lungs
26
what happens to air in mammals?
its inhaled through the nostrils and filtered, warmed, humidified and sampled for odors
27
directs air to the lungs and food to the stomach
pharynx
28
steps of swallowing (2) (MT)
1) moves the larynx upward
| 2) tips the epiglottis over the glottis in the pharynx to prevent food from entering the trachea
29
where does air pass through?
the pharynx, the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles to the aveoli where gas exchange occurs
30
where does exhaled air pass over?
the vocal cords in the larynx to create sounds
31
what lines the epithelium of the air ducts and moves particles up to the pharynx?
cilia and mucus
32
cleans respiratory system and allows particles to be swallowed in the esophagus
"mucus escalator"
33
where does gas exchange take place?
the alveoli
34
air sacs at the tips of the bronchioles
alveoli
35
what does oxygen do?
diffuses through the moist film of the epithelium and into capillaries
36
what does carbon dioxide do?
diffuses from the capillaries across the epitherlium and into the air space
37
what do alveoli lack making them susceptible to contamination?
cilia
38
in surface tension what is water?
polar
39
in surface tension what is the attraction between molecules on the surface?
higher than interior molecules
40
the process that ventilates the lungs, the alternate inhalation and exhalation of air
breathing
41
air is forced into lungs because pressure outside lungs is greater
positive pressure breathing
42
air is drawn into lungs because pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure
negative pressure breathing
43
what type of breathing does an amphibian such as a frog ventilate its lungs by and how?
positive pressure breathing, which forces air down the trachea
44
how many air sacs do birds have that function as bellows that keep air flowing through the lungs helping them breath?
8 or 9
45
how does air travel in birds?
through the lungs in one direction
46
what does the passage of air through the entire system of lungs and air sacs in birds require?
2 cycles of inhalation and exhalation
47
what is ventilation in birds?
highly efficient
48
how do mammals ventilate their lungs and how?
by negative pressure breathing which pulls air into the lungs
49
when does lung volume increase in mammals?
as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract
50
the volume of air inhaled with each breath
tidal volume
51
maximum tidal volume
vital capacity
52
after exhalation, the air that remains in the lungs
a residual volume
53
measures speed of exhalation and inhalation
spirometry
54
what is the average tidal volume, vital capacity and residual volume?
tidal: 500mL, vital: 3-5 L and Residual: can't be measure by spirometry (1200 mg)
55
in humans, what is breathing usually regulated by?
involuntary mechanisms
56
where are the breathing control center found in humans?
the medulla oblongata of the brain
57
regulates the rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid
medulla
58
what do sensors in the aorta and cartoid arteries monitor?
concentrations in the blood
59
what do the sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries signal?
the breathing control centers, which respond as needed
60
where does additional modulation of breathing take place?
the pons, next to the medulla
61
what do the metabolic demands of many organisms require?
that the blood transport large quantities of O2 and CO2
62
what does blood arriving in the lungs have?
a low partial pressure of O2 and a high partial pressure of CO2 relative to air in the alveoli
63
in the alveoli, what does O2 and CO2 do?
diffuse into the blood and CO2 diffuses into the air
64
in tissue capillaries, what does partial pressure gradients favor?
diffusion of O2 into the interstital fluid and CO2 into the blood.
65
proteins that transport oxygen and greatly increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry (hemoglobin)
respiratory pigments
66
what do anthropods and molluscs have
hemocyanin with copper as the oxygen-binding component
67
what do most vertibrates and some invertebrates use?
hemoglobin
68
in veterbrates, what is hemoglobin contained within?
erythrocytes
69
what color is blood in mollusks and arthropods when oxygenated?
bright blue
70
characteristics of hemoglobin in oxygen transport (6) (FEEEFB)
1) four globin subunits
2) each subunit has a heme group
3) each heme has an iron atom
4) each subunit can bind one oxygen molecule
5) four in total per hemoglobin
6) binds oxygen in a cooperative fashion
71
how does hemoglobin bind oxygen in a cooperative fashion?
affinity increases with each bound oxygen
72
what does the hemoglobin dissociation curve show?
that a small change can result in a large change in delivery of O2
73
CO2 produced during cellular respiration lowers blood pH and decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2
bohr shift
74
what plays a minor role in transport of CO2 and asists in buffering of blood?
hemoglobin
75
when the first oxygen molecule binds to hemoglobin, the structure of protein changes so that the next molecule of oxygen can find easier
cooperative binding
76
what happens during carbon dioxide transport?
some CO2 from respiring cells diffuses into the blood and is transported in blood, bound to hemoglobin
77
what does the remainder of CO2 diffuse into and what does it dissociate?
erythrocytes and racts with water to form H2CO3 which disassociates H+ and bicarbonate ions
78
in the lungs what does the relative partial pressures of CO2 favor?
the net diffusion of CO2 out of the blood
79
characteristics of Carbon minoxide
1) CO does bind to the heme group (not heme molecule)
| 2) finds at 200 times the strength of O2 which is how CO2 poisoning occurs
80
characteristics of crocodile icefish (4) (NOLC)
1) no hemoglobin
2) oxygen dissolves in blood plasma
3) low metabolic rate
4) cold waters have more oxygen
81
what do diving mammals have that allow them to perform extraordinary feats?
evolutionary adapatations
82
examples of evolutionary adaptations of mammals?
1) weddell seals in Antarctica can remain under water for 20min to an hour
2) elephant seals can dive to 1500 m and remain underwater for 2 hrs
83
what do animals with evolutionary adaptations have?
a high blood to body volume ratio
84
what do deep-diving air breathers do?
stockpile O2 and deplete it slowly
85
diving mamals store oxygen in their muscles
myoglobin proteins
86
what can diving mammals also do with oxygen?
conserve O2
87
how does diving mammals conserve O2? (3) (CDD)
1) by changing their buoyancy to glide passively
2) by decreasing blood supply to muscles
3) by deriving ATP in muscles from fermentation once O2 is depleted
88
what do physiological systems of animals operate in?
a fluid environment
89
what must relative concentrations of water and solution be maintained within?
narrow limits
90
controls solute concentrations and balances water gain and loss
osmoregulation
91
what type of environments do desert and marine animals face?
desicating environments that can quickly deplete water
92
how do freshwater animals survive?
by conserving solutes and absorbing salts from their surroundings
93
rids the body of nitrogenous metabolites and other waste products
excretion
94
what is osmoregulation based largely on?
balancing the uptake and loss of water and solutes
95
what is the driving force for movement of solutes and water?
a concentration gradient of one or more solutes across the plasma membrane
96
the way water enters and leaves cells
osmosis
97
the solute concentration of a solutions determines the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane (doesn't let all fluids through)
osmolarity
98
when in two solutions, water molecules will cross the membrane at equal rates in both directions
isoosmotic
99
the net flow of water if two solutions differ in osmoloraity
hyposoosmotic (less concentrated)
100
if two solutions differ in somolarity with higher concentraion
hypersmotic solution
101
consisting of some marine animals, are isoosomotic with their surrounding and do NOT regulate their osmolarity
osmoconformers
102
expend energy to control water uptake and loss in a hypersmotic or hypoosmotic environment
osmoregulators
103
types of animals with osmoregulatory challenges and mechanisms
1) osmoconformers
| 2) osmoregulators
104
what are most animals when it comes to osmoregulariatory mechanisms?
stenohaline
105
animals that cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity
stenohaline
106
what type of animals can survive large functions in external osmolarity?
Euryhaline animals
107
what are most marine invertebrates?
osmoconformers
108
what are many marine verterbrates and some marine inverterbrates?
osmoregulators
109
what are marine bony fishes to seawater?
hypoosmotic
110
how do marine bony fishes balance water loss?
by drinking large amounts of sea water and eliminating the ingested salts through their gills and kidneys
111
how do freshwater animals constantly take in water balance?
by osmosis from their hypoosmotic environment
112
how do freshwater animals lose salts and maintain water?
by diffusion and they maintain water balance by drinking almost no water and excreting large amounts of dilute urine
113
how are salts lost by diffusion in freshwater animals replaced?
in foods and by uptake across the gills
114
what type of waters do some aquatic invertebrates live in?
temporary ponds
115
what do aquatic vertebrates that live in temporary ponds lose?
almost all their body water and survive in a dormant state
116
adaption to temporary ponds and becoming in a dormant state (hybernation)
anhydrobiosis
117
what is key to survival on land?
adaptions to reduce water loss
118
what do body coverings of most terrestrial animals help?
prevent dehydration
119
what do desert animals get major water savings from?
simple anatomical features and behaviors such as a nocturnal lifestyle
120
how do land animals maintain water balance?
by eating moist food and producing water metabolically through cellular respiration
121
what must osmoregulatrors do to maintain osmotic gradients?
expend energy
122
How does the amount of energy expended to maintain osmotic gradients differ based on? (3) (HHW)
1) how different the animals osmolarity is from its surroundings (desert vs. rainforest)
2) how easily water solutes move across the animals surface (water diffusing cells vs. drinking)
3) the work required to pump solutes across the membrane
123
what do animals regulate which bathes their cells?
the solute content of body fluid
124
epithilial cells specialized for moving solutes in specific directions
transport epithelia
125
how are transport epithelia typically arranged?
into complex tubular networks
126
what is an example of transport epithelia?
nasal glands in marine birds
127
how do nasal glands in marine birds display transport epithelia?
they remove excess sodium chloride from the blood
128
what may greatly affect water balance in an animal?
the type and quantity of animal's waste products
129
what is among the most significant wastes in an animal?
nitrogeneous breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
130
what do some animals convert toxic ammonia (NH3) to?
less toxic compounds prior to excretion
131
types of nitrogenous waste excreted by animals (3) (AUU)
1) ammonia
2) urea
3) uric acid
132
what do the three nitrogenous wastes excreted by animals differ in?
toxicity and the energy costs of producing them
133
what do animals that excrete nitrogenous wastes as ammonia need access to and why?
lots of water to dilute the toxicity
134
what do animals do when they excrete ammonia?
they release it across the whole body surface
135
what do most terrestrial animals and many marine animals excrete that is less toxic than ammonia?
urea
136
where is urea produced in vertebrates?
in the liver
137
what carries urea to the kidneys where its excreted?
the circulatory system
138
is conversion of ammonia to urea energetically expensive?
yes
139
what does excretion of urea require less of than ammonia?
water
140
what type of nitrogenous wastes do insects, land snails and many reptiles including birds mainly excrete?
uric acid
141
is uric acid toxic and what does it not do?
it's relatively nontoxic and does not dissolve readily in water
142
what is uric acid secreted as?
a paste with little water loss
143
is uric acid more or less energetically expensive to producce than urea
more
144
what type of animals excrete ammonia?
most aquatic animals including most bony fishes
145
what type of animals excrete urea?
mammals, most amphibians, sharks and some bony fishes
146
what type of animals excrete uric acid?
many reptiles (including birds), insects, land snails
147
what do the kinds of nitrogenous wastes excreted depend on?
an animal's evolutionary history and habitat especially water availability
148
what is the amount of nitrogenous waste coupled to?
the animal's energy budget
149
what do excretory systems regulate solute movement between?
internal fluids and the external environment
150
what are the excretory systems central to?
homeostasis
151
how do most excretory systems produce urine?
by refining a filtrate derived from body fluids
152
filtering of body fluids
filtration
153
reclaiming valuable solutes
resabsorption
154
adding nonessential solutes and wastes to filtrate
secretion
155
processed to filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes is released from the body
excretion
156
what type of systems vary widely among animal groups?
ones that perform basic excretory functions
157
what do systems that perform basic excretory function usually involve?
a complex network of tubules
158
a network of dead-end tubules connected to external openings
protonephridium
159
what are the smallest branches of a protonephridum capped by?
a cellular unit called flame bulb
160
what do protonephridum tubules excrete and function in?
a dilute fluid and function in osmoregulation
161
what do each segment of an earthworm have a pair of?
open-ended metanephridia
162
consists of tubules that collect coelomic fluid and produce dilute urine for excretion
metanephridia
163
what do metanephridia of earthworms function in?
excretion and osmoregulation
164
found in insects and other terrestrial arthopods. they remove nitrogenous wastes from hemolymph and function in osmoregulation
malppighian tubules
165
what type of waste matter do insects produce and what is it important to?
a relatively dry waste matter, mainly uric acid. It is an important adaption to terrestrial life
166
where can some terrestrial insects also take up water?
from the air
167
the excretory organs of verterbrates. They function in both excretion and osmoregulation
kidneys
168
what are the numerous tubules of the kidneys?
highly organized
169
what does a verterbrate excretory system also include?
ducts and other structures that carry urine from the tubules out of the kidney and out of the body.
170
what part of the nephron does filtration take place?
in the Bowman's capsule
171
what does the filtration in the Bowman's capsule contain? (6) (SGAVNO)
1) salts
2) glucose
3) amino acids
4) vitamins
5) nitrogenous wastes
6) other small molecules
172
what part of the nephron does reasorption of ions, water and nutrients take place?
in the proximal tube
173
how are molecules transported from the filtrate into the intestitial fluid and then capillaries?
actively and passively
174
as the filtrate passes through the proximal tubule what happens to material to be excreted?
they become concentrated
175
what type of materials are actively secreted into the filtrate?
some toxic materials
176
after the proximal tube where does reabsorption of water continue through?
channels formed by aquaporin proteins
177
what is movement in the descending limb of the loop of henle driven by?
the high osmoloarity of the interstital fluid which is hpersmotic to the filtrate
178
when in the descending what does the filtration become?
increasingly concentrated
179
what happens in the ascending limb of the loop of henle?
salt but not water is able to diffuse from the tubule into the interstital fluid
180
what does the filtrate become in the asscending limb of the loop of henle?
increasingly dilute
181
what is very unique about the asscending limb of the loop of henle?
it's impermiable to water
182
what does the distal tube in the nephron regulate?
the K+ and NACI concentrations of body fluid
183
what does the controlled movement of ions (H+ and HCO3) contribute to?
pH regulation
184
what does the collecting duct of the nephron carry the filtrate through?
the medulla to the renal pelvis
185
what is one of the most important tasks in the collecting duct?
reabsportion of solutes and water
186
what is urine to body fluids?
hypersmotic
187
what is urine more or less concentrated?
more
188
what is the main function of the descending limb?
water removal
189
what is the main function of the ascending limb?
salt removal
190
what is a key terrestrial adaption in mammals?
the mammalian kidney' s ability to conserve water
191
what is the ony reason hypersmotic urine can be produced?
because considerable energy is expended to transport solutes against concentration gradients
192
what are the 2 primary solutes affecting osmolarity?
1) NACI
| 2) urea
193
what happens to the filtrate volume in the proximal tube?
it decreases as water and salt are reabsorped but osmolarity remains the same
194
as the filtrate flows to the descending limb of the loop of henle what does solutes become and why?
more concentrated because due to water leaving the tubule by osmosis
195
what does NACI diffusing from the ascending limb maintain?
a high osmolarity in the inestitial fluid of the renal medulla
196
why is energy expended in a mammal's kidney?
to actively transport NACI from the filtrate in the upper part of the ascending limb
197
involves the loop of henle which maintains a high salt concentration in the kidney
countercurrent multiplyer system
198
what does the countercurrent multiplyer system allow the vasa recta to supply the kidney with?
nutrients, without interfering with the osmolarity gradient
199
in the collecting ducts what extracts water from the filtrate as it passes from the cortex to the medulla and encounters interstitial fluid of increasing osmolarity?
osmosis
200
what is urine produced to the interstital fluiod of the inner medulla?
isoosmotic but hpersmotic to bloodand intesterstital fluids elsewhere in the body
201
what is key to water conservation in terrestrial animals
the juxtamedullary nephron
202
what do mammals that inhabit dry environments vs. those in fresh water have?
in dry environments they have long loops of henle but in fresh water, they have relatively short loops
203
where do freshwater fishes conserve salt and that do they excrete?
in their distal tubules and excrete large volumes of very dilute urine
204
what is kidney function in amphibians similar to?
freshwater fishes
205
how do amphibians conserve water on land?
by reabsorbing water from the urinary bladder
206
what are mammals responding to when controllinig the volume and osmolarity of urine?
the changes in salt intake and water availability
207
what does a combination of nervous and hormonals controls manage?
the osmoregularity functions of the mammalian kidney
208
what does does the homonal and nervous control contribute to for blood pressure and blood volume?
homeostasis
209
what is another name for Antidiueretic Hormone (ADH)?
vasopressin
210
what does osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus monitor and regulate?
blood osmorality and regulate the reason of ADH from the posterior pituitary
211
what happens when osmolarity rises above its set point?
ADH releases into the blood stream increases
212
order of the way osmorality works (6) (NBHHDN)
1) normal blood osmorality
2) blood osmorality increases (after sweating- exercise)
3) hypothalamus triggers release of ADH
4) hypothalamus generates thirst
5) drink water
6) normal osmorality is restored
213
what does binding of ADH receptor molecules lead to a temporary increase of?
the number of aquaporin proteins in the membrane of collecting ducts
214
what does the binding of ADH receptor molecules reduce?
urine volume and lowers blood osmorality
215
what is alcohol or caffeine and why?
a diuretic because it inhibits the release of ADH
216
what does mutation of ADH productions cause?
severe dehydration and results in diabetes inspidus
217
part of a complex feedback circuit that functions in homeostasis
renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system (RAAS)
218
what causes the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) to release the enzyme renin?
a drop in blood pressure near the glomerulus
219
what does Renin trigger?
the formation of the peptide angiotensin II
220
how does RAAS differ from osmorality?
RAAS responds to blood pressure from dehydration
221
what raises blood pressure and decreases blood flow to the kidneys?
angiotensin II
222
what releases the hormone aldosterone?
angiotensin II
223
what does aldosterone increase?
blood volume and pressure
224
though ADH and RAAS both increase water absorbtion what does only RAAS respond to?
a decrease in blood volume
225
what type of inflow/outflow does freshwater animals have?
does not drink water, salt in H2O (active transport by gills)
226
what type of inflow outflow does marine bony fishes have?
drink water, salt in H2O salt out (active by gills)
227
what type inflow/outflow does terrrestrial verterbrates have?
drink water by mouth
228
what type of urine volume do marine fishes have?
large volume which is less concentrated than body fluids
229
what type of urine do marine bony fishes have?
small volume of water, urine is slightly less concentrated than body fluids
230
what type of urine do terrestrial vertebrates have?
moderate volume of urine, urine is more concentrated than body fluids s
231
how does the heart muscle pump blood?
via muscle contraction
232
if the cardiac muscle isn't getting enough blood what happens?
your body isn't getting the nutrients that your body needs to function such as oxygen
233
what do the coronary arteries do?
supply blood to the heart muscle
234
what can happen if coronary arteries become narrowed by fatty or mineralized deposits?
diseases such as atherorsclerosis can occur which can lead to high blood pressure leading to a heart attack
235
why are coronary arteries so easily blocked by floating emoblisms?
arteries already have thick walls and inflammation cause them to narrow more and can lead to a heart attack. they are much smaller compared to aorta
236
what is the timing of the contractions of the heart regulated by?
the sinoatrial (SA) node aka the pacemaker
237
how do action potentials get from muscle to muscle cell?
via a gap junction.
238
connects two cells
gap junction
239
what does it mean if an EKG shows a long delay between the P wave and the QRS complex?
the AV node is damaged between the atria and the ventricles of the heart
240
which of the four valves can be leaking with a heart murmur?
any of them but the mitral and aortic valves are most common
241
when is the sloshy sound of a heart murmur heard?
during ventricular systole
242
when is the dub sound heard?
during ventricular diastole
243
what do the chordae tendinae (heart strings) do?
they keep the valves closed
244
what does it mean if the valves are leaking?
that the chordae tendinae aren't working causing a heart murmur
245
what can angioplasty and an insteration of a stent do?
it can remove the blockage of the arteries and restore normal blood flow
246
why would a stent be favorable over open heart surgery?
it's less life threateneing and less risks of infection from incisions
