Lecture 7: Motivation, Emotion And Personality Flashcards
1
Q
Motivation
A
- mental and behavioural processes that influence the direction, persistence, and vigour of goal-directed behaviour
(Motivation = expectancy + incentive value)
2
Q
Instinct
A
inherited predisposition to behave in a specific and predictable way when exposed to a particular stimuli
3
Q
Facts of instinct
A
- have genetic basis
- All members of a species has them
- Independent of learning (not nurture)
- Have survival value (instincts evolved over gens and provide certain adaptive advantages
- How instincts give survival advantage, we can understand role in motivation
4
Q
Homeostasis
A
- state of internal equilibrium or balance that the body strives to maintain
- Body has sensory mechanisms that detect changes, control system that decides what to do, response system that gets it done
(swear when too hot or shiver when cold)
5
Q
Psychological homeostasis
A
return to set point after disruption
6
Q
Drive theory
A
- disruptions to homeostasis produce drives
(states of internal tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways to reduce the tension)- Ex. feel hungry (disruption/tension) so you are driven to eat something
7
Q
Drive theory facts
A
- More to do with bodily functions but can be used to describe psychological states as internal tension
- Don’t always act to alleviate internal tension
- Consciously restricting our food consumption
- Staying awake for longer then we should
8
Q
Incentives
A
- environmental stimuli that pulls an organism toward a goal
- Focus on allure of external stimuli (dif, from drive theories that focus on internal tension and resolution)
- Usually distinct from, but often related to, internal drives
(Ex; eating dessert after you’ve finished a meal)
9
Q
Problems with incentives
A
- why do we respond differently to some incentives?
- Says nothing about how we think about incentives
10
Q
Expectancy
A
- goal-directed behaviour
11
Q
How is expectancy determined by 2 things?
A
- how strongly we expect our behaviours will lead to the desired outcome
- Value we place on outcome
12
Q
Extrinsic motivation
A
- doing something to gain a reward or to avoid punishment
- Imposed from outside
13
Q
Intrinsic Motivation
A
- doing something for its own sake, because you enjoy it or think its worthwhile
- no external force or coercion to do it
- Motivations come from own desires, thoughts, beliefs, goals, feelings, etc
14
Q
Can combine extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation to do something
A
- love job but also need to make a living
- External reward can undermine our intrinsic motivation to do something
15
Q
Psychodynamic theories
A
- behaviour is result of conflicts between our unconscious impulses/desires and psychological defences used to keep them under control
1) Disguise socially unacceptable behaviour through more appropriate behaviours
- ex: hide aggressive impulses through competitions
16
Q
Humanistic theories
A
- motivation through striving for personal growth
- Difference between deficiency needs (physical and social survival) and growth needs
- Growth needs are uniquely human and motivate us to develop our potential
(Takes 10,000 hours to become an expert at something)
17
Q
Problems with idea of hierarchy
A
- “self-actualization” is pretty vague
- Often deny some basic needs to feel fulfilled
18
Q
Growth needs
A
- self-actual action
- Aesthetic needs (beauty, symmetry)
- Cognitive needs (knowledge, understanding)
19
Q
Deficiency needs
A
- esteem needs (approval, recognition)
- Belongingness and love needs (affiliation, acceptance, affection)
- Safety needs (security, psychological safety)
- Physiological needs (food, drink)
20
Q
Regression
A
if lower needs are not met
21
Q
Progression
A
if lower needs are satisfied
22
Q
Self-determination theory
A
- have fundamental needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness
- Most fulfilled when we have all 3 kinds of needs met
23
Q
Competence
A
- master new challenges/skills
24
Q
Autonomy
A
- free choice without interference
25
Relatedness
- Freire to form meaningful bonds with others
26
Need for achievement
- desire to accomplish tasks and attain standards of excellence
27
Motive for success
- attracted to the thrill of victory
- Get strong reward response when we complete task or win at something or do better then others
28
Fear of failure
- pushed to avoid losing
- Measured by test that determine how much anxiety people experience in achievement situations
- People are more motivated by a fear of failure than a motive for success
29
Fear of failure facts
- parents who reward or encourage achievement and don’t punish failure produce kids who have need for achievement
- Fear of failure is fostered through parental expectation of success and punishment of failure
30
Cultural variations
- western/individualistic cultures stress personal achievement
- Eastern/collectivistic cultures stress group goals, fitting into family and social groups and meeting their expectations
31
Achievement goal theory
- Focus on manner in which success is defined by individual and the situation itself
32
Mastery orientation
- personal improvement, giving maximum effort, and perfecting skills
33
Performance orientation
- want to outperform others
34
Approach
- moving towards something
35
Avoidance
- moving away from something
36
Mastery-approach
I want to learn as much as I can
37
Mastery-avoidance
“I dont want to learn nothing from this”
38
Performance-approach
“I want to get the best grade”
39
Performance-avoidance
“I don’t want to get the worse grade”
40
Performance depends on type of task
- Tasks are easy and relaxed are associated with no difference between high or low need for achievement
- Tasks that are challenging and high-stress find high-need achievement people perform better then low-need achievement people
41
High achievement
- people choose situations that present a middle-level of challenge (not too difficult, aka good chance of failure or too easy)
- People motivated by fear of failure will most often take the easiest option, given the choice
- Perception of task uncertainty is best predictive of success
42
Hunger
1. one of our most basic physiological needs and necessary for our survival
- Evolve a lot of mechanisms that involve eating, such as a reward response to sugar
2. Imagine you could get all of your nutritional needs satisfied through pills
- People enjoy experience of eating
- Biological drive (need for nutrients) with a psychological incentive (tastes good)
43
Metabolism
- body rate of energy utilization, measured in calories
- 2/3 of our energy usage goes to maintain basal metabolism (bare minimum needed to keep our cells going)
- Mechs that keep body in homeostasis by regulating food intake
44
States of metabolism
1. Hunger = more food intake
2. Satiety = feeling full, don’t need more food
3. Long-terms signals, based on body fat that adjust appetite and metabolism
45
When do we feel hungry?
- stomach contradictions (noticed by tummy rumble) correspond to feelings of hungry, but don’t necessarily cause these feelings
- People who have their stomachs removed still feel hungry and/or full
- Animal research where nerves from stomach to brain been cut, still display hunger behaviours
- More to hunger then empty stomach
46
Why do we feel full?
- partially from stomachs and intensities stretching as food fills them up, which sends nerves to the brain
- Nutritionally rich food seems to “fill us up” faster than equal volume of less nutritious food
- Food content may play a role in feeling full
47
Chemicals in feeling full
- Chemical signals in the body also contribute to feeling hungry or full
- Hormones (peptides) are released by the intestines in response to food
48
Chemical signals of hungry and satiety
1. Gherkin
2. Leptin
3. CCK (cholecystokinin)
49
CCK (cholecystokinin)
that is released when food reaches small intestine signals feeling of being “full”
50
Gherkin
released by the stomach and small intestine and considered most important chemical hunger signal for humans
51
Leptin
- hormone that is secreted by fat cells to actively regulate food intake
- Decreases appetite (gain fat, more leptin is secreted into blood stream)
- Does not make us feel full, but instead regulates other hunger/satiety signals
52
Hunger Fact
1. Hunger is not associated with immediate energy needs
- only felt hungry when our energy supply was low, we would be of serious medical problems
2. Evidence to suggest that body weight may have settling point
- previously thought we had a set point for body weight and that if we eat too much or not enough, homeostatic mechanisms would return us to our set point body weight
53
Psychological aspects of hunger
- several areas of brain are associated with hunger and eating
- Lateral hypothalamus seemed to be a “hunger on” centre
54
fMRI studies of exposure to environmental cues suggests…
that seeing/smelling food triggers motivation and reward centre’s in our brain
55
How is fMRI explained?
- strength of brain activation is associated with body weight
- Ppl who show smaller responses to food stimuli lost weight, whereas those who showed large responses to food stimuli lost the least amount of weight
- Ppl with BMI over 30 show greater activity in brain areas associated with pleasure/reward aspect of food
56
Learning and eating habits
1. Positive reinforcement through good taste/reward centre of the brain, and negatively reinforced through hunger reduction
2. Develop expectations that play role in our experience of food consumption
57
Attitudes and habits develop overtime…
leading to habits of eating when not hungry
58
Clean plate club
1. told that you must finish everything on the plate, regardless of feeling full
2. Snacking while doing certain tasks
3. Keeping eating schedule despite not feeling hungry
59
Sociocultural factors: Food
- influence by ppl around us
- Portion size
- People around you
- Amount that others eat
- Variety of foods available
60
Food availability
can’t hear what’s not available
61
Genetics
- account for 40-70% of variation in body mass
- 200> genes have been associated with human obesity
- Identical twins reared apart and together are roughly the same, adopted children resemble bio parent instead of adoptive
62
Sexual motivation: biological
- sex is for reproduction
- Vast majority of sex is mot undertaken to conceive children
63
Sexual behaviours that are NOT reproduction
1. Masturbation
2. Oral sex
3. Anal sex
4. Using birth control
5. Having sex even after no longer being able to reproduce (post-menopause)
64
Pleasure =/ reasons why people engage in sexual behaviour
1. Peer pressure
2. Something you have to do
3. A lot of people don’t necessarily enjoy sex
65
Possible reasons for engaging in sexual behaviour
1. To reproduce
2. Obtain
3. Give pleasure
4. Express love
5. Foster intimacy
6. Help one’s ego
7. Fulfill a perceived “duty”
8. Conform to peer pressure
9. Get over broken relationship
10. Earn money
66
Hypothalamus
- tells pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropin hormones into blood stream
- Gonadotropin travels to gonads which secrete androgens (testosterone and estrogen)
- Sex hormones create physiological differences in males and females beginning in utero and again during puberty
67
Hormones
- have activation affects that stimulate sexual desire and behaviour
68
Hormone facts
- Males have relatively constant secretion of sex hormones
- Females have cycle of hormone release
- Normal short-term hormonal fluctuations have little effect on sexual arousability
- Baseline levels of testosterone appear to be necessary to maintain sexual desire in males and females
69
Sexual fantasy
- imaginary sexual stimuli
- Half of men 1/5th women ages 18-59 fantasize about sex at least once a day
- People fantasize at least a little during sexual intercourse and not as a response to dissatisfaction with one’s partner
70
Psychological factors that inhibit sex
- difficulty becoming or maintaining arousal due to stress, fatigue, anger, etc.
71
Sexual dysfunction
- chronic, impaired sexual functioning that cause significant distress
72
Sociocultural factors: Sex
1. Religion
1. Practices that encourage to prohibit sexual behaviours
2. Cultural norms
3. Permissibility of sexual behaviours
4. Socially acceptable reactions to clothing, nudity and aspects of sex
5. Permissibility of pornography
73
Impact of porn: Social learning theory
- learn through observation
74
Facts of porn
1. No clear evidence that watching porn at younger age is linked with sexual violence
2. Rates of sexual violence doesn’t seem to correlate well with availability of pornography
3. Can influence our expectations and thoughts regarding sex
4. Porn replaced young peoples go-to source for sex edu.
75
Motivation conflict: Goals conflict
ex; wanting to do what you want vs meeting family expectations
76
Approach-approach conflict
- two attractive goals competing with each other
77
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
- lesser of two evils, having to choose between two undesirable alternatives
78
Approach-avoidance conflict
- attracted and repelled by the same goal
- Starting a new diet program
- Switching majors in 4th yr
79
Emotions
- +/- feelings consisting of a pattern of cognitive, physiological and behaviour reactions to internal or external events that have relevance to important goals or motives
- Both emotions and motivations have components of arousal and trigger patterns of action
- Tend to be more motivated by emotions then pure rational thinking
80
Facts of emotions
Emotions signals something that important is happening and directed to our attention
- ex; fear (signals danger, triggers fight or flight)
81
Broaden-and-build theory
- Positive emotions help us build social relations and broaden our thinking
82
Social communication
- providing observable info about our internal states
- Consider how we treat people who have trouble reading emotional cues
83
Components of emotion
1. Cognitive appraisal
2. Physiological response
3. Behavioural tendencies
84
Cognitive appraisal
interpret external/internal stimuli which gives situation its perceived meaning and sig.
85
Physiological response
- sympathetic nervous system responds to event
- Increase heart-rate, breathing rate, sweat production
86
Behavioural tendencies
- expressive behaviours
- Smiling, crying, laughing
- Instrumental behaviours
- Studying for test to relieve anxiety, fighting person who made you angry
87
Facts of emotions: dynamics
Emotions are dynamic and ongoing process
- each aspect of emotion feed into others to influence how chain of emotions play out
- Appraisal of situation is largely an unconscious, automatic process in response dot electing stimuli
88
Motion of emotions
1. electing stimuli
2. Cognitive appraisal
1. Physiological response
2. Expressive behaviour
3. Instrumental behaviour
89
Cognitive appraisal
- explains how ppl see same thing, react differently
90
Cultural factors
- if everyone sees emotions as meaning the same thing, it would be strong evidence for emotions as a human universal
- Not all cultures recognize same emotional expressions
91
Display rules:
- what emotions are appropriate to show under what circumstances
1. Public
2. Private
3. Friends
4. Family
92
James-Lange Somatic theory
- think we cry we are sad
- J-L somatic theory suggests that we are sad, we are crying
- Body informs mind - fake smile and you will soon be happy
- Fake till make it
93
Cannon-Bard Theory
- peoples bodies do not respond instantaneously to an emotional event (need time for the body to react)
- Seem to experience emotion almost immediately
- Brain send info about then event to our emotion centres and autonomic nervous system at the same time
- Cognitions nor arousal cause the others but are independent responses
94
Cognitive-Affect theories
- how we think about, appraise or interpret the event makes a difference in how we react emotionally
- About how hearing people laughing as you walk down the street
- Latter has specific emotions for specific stimuli
- Seeing bear = afraid
- Hearing insult = anger
95
Emotions as motivation
- often motivated by emotions then thought/reason
- Not good at dealing with large numbers in an abstract way
- Emotions change our decision-making processes
96
Personality
- distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that characterize a person’s responses to events and situations
97
Attributes to personality
1. Components of identity
2. Perceived internal cause
3. Perceive organization and structure
98
Different from others
1. Components of ID
2. How you behave - reflections of internal causes rather than environmental
3. Consistent your behaviours are relative to each other — suggests inner factors that guide and direct behaviours
99
Freud’s psychoanalytic approach
- ID (the pleasure principle)
- EGO (reality and median for ID and SUPER EGO)
- SUPEREGO (heavenly values)
100
Conscious
- immediate awareness of current environment
101
Preconscious
- available to awareness (e,g., names of friends, home address)
102
Unconscious
- unavailable to awareness (infantile memories, repressed wishes and conflicts)
103
Psychosexual stages
1. Oral stage
2. Anal stage
3. Phallic stage
4. Latency
5. Genital
104
Oral stage (birth - 1yr)
1. Centred around infants mouth
2. Conflict = too much (over-fed) or too little (weaned early)
105
2. Anal stage (1-3yrs)
1. Child wants can often from into conflict with what parents expect of them
2. If not done correctly, can go horribly wrong
1. Anal retentive
1. Hates mess, overly tidy, punctual, suborn
2. Anal expulsive
1. Likes sharing, messy, disorganized, rebellious
106
Phallic stage (3-6 yrs)
1. Conflict = oedipus complex (boys), Electra complex (girls)
2. If not properly resolved
1. Males = overly aggressive, ambitious, vain
2. Females = want to dominate men by becoming overly seductive (high self-esteem) or overly submissive (low self-esteem)
107
Latency (6-puberty)
1. Nothing happening, just calm in-between
2. Child to busy with school and friends
108
Genital (puberty onward)
1. Purpose = psychological detachment and independent from parents
2. Gental stage is centred upon genitalia, but sexuality is consensual and adult
3. Concern shifts from primary-drive gratification (instinct) to apply secondary process-thinking to gratify desire
1. Symbolically
2. Intellectually
109
Defence mechanisms
- conflict between ID, EGO/SUPEREGO creates anxiety
- Anxiety signals that there’s something writing and ego needs to do something
- Anxiety can be reduced through realistic coping mechanism
110
Repression
- anxiety-arousal impulses are pushed into unconscious
111
Denial
- refusing to acknowledge anxiety-arousing aspects of environment
112
Displacement
- unacceptable or dangerous impulse is repressed and redirected at a safer substitute
113
Intellectualization
- emotion connected with an event is repressed and the situation is dealt with as an intellectual curiosity
114
Projection
- unacceptable impulse is repressed and then attributed to other people
115
Rationalization:
- constructing a false but plausible explanation or excuse for an anxiety-arousal behaviour or event that has occurred
116
Reaction formation
- unacceptable impulse is repressed and its psychic energy finds release in an exaggerated expression of the opposite behaviour
117
Sublimation
- repressed impulse is release in the form of a socially acceptable or admired behaviour
118
Facts about Freud:
1. Favoured clinical observation and case studies, best source of evidence is everyday behaviour and clinical phenomena
2. Opposed experimental research
119
Humanistic theories
- emphasis on self-actualization
- Total realization of one’s human potential
120
George Kelly (1905-1967)
- want to make sense of out of the world, find personal meaning in it
- Feel anxious when we can’t and seek out ways to explain and understand events of our lives
121
Personal constructs:
- cognitive categories in which people sort the events and people in their lives
122
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
- behaviour is a response to our immediate conscious experience of self and environment
The self:
- organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself
Self-concept:
- modernized term for “the shelf”
123
Self-consistency
- an absence of conflict among self-perceptions
124
Congruence
- consistency between self-perceptions and experience
125
Self-esteem
- how positive or negative we feel about ourselves
Facts:
- important to our personal well-being, happiness and adjustment related to many (+) behaviours and life-outcomes
126
High-self esteem
- leads to less susceptibility to social pressure, fewer interpersonal problems, happier lives, greater personal achievement and more capable of forming satisfying love
- Not always great, unrealistic and/or unstable, may react aggressively when self-esteem is threatened
127
Low-self esteem
- associated with under-achievement, psychological problems (mood disorders), physical illness and poor social relations
128
Need for positive regard
- acceptance
- Sympathy
- Love From others
1. Essential for healthy development
2. Ideally comes from parents - positive regard independent of how child behaves
3. Communicates child is inherently worthy of love
129
Lack of
1. Positive regard
2. Adapt behaviours
3. Conditions of worth
130
1. Positive regard
1. Teaches someone to view themselves as only worthy of approval and love when they meet certain standards
131
2. Adapt behaviours
1. “Condition of worth”
2. Received parental approval when being happy and disapproval of their own feelings of sadness
132
3. Conditions of worth
1. Create incongruence between self and experience a need to deny/distort important aspects of experience
133
Self-verification
- preserving one’s self-concept by maintaining self-consistency and congruence
- Tend to seek out self-confirming relations, staying with people who conform our view of ourself
134
Self-enhancement
- tendency to gain and preserve a positive self-image
- Partially through self-serving bias
- Rate ourselves better then average on most socially desirable metrics
135
Fully functioning person
1. Don’t hide behind masks or adopt artificial roles
2. Sense of inner freedom, self-determination, and choice in the direction of their growth
3. Inner acceptance, outer experiences as they are without modifying them defensively to suit a rigid self-concept or the expectations of others
4. Can be true to themselves
5. 5-7 key characteristics (depends who you ask)
136
5-7 key characteristics (depends who you ask)
1. Openness to experience
2. Existential living
3. Trust feelings
4. Creativity
5. Rich/fulfilled life
6. Freedom of choice
7. Reliability
8. Constructiveness
137
Cross-culture ideas about self
1. Individualistic cultures (North America and Europe) place higher emphasis on independence and personal attainment
2. Collectivist cultures place higher emphasis on connection between people and achievement of group goals
3. Completing “I am…” sentences
1. American students: dispositions, personality traits, abilities
2. Japanese students: social identity traits
4. Cultural differences can also be a product of bias in testing
138
4 possible answers for cross-culture
- Physical traits
- Personality traits
- Social roles
- Existential roles
