Lecture 7: Motivation, Emotion And Personality Flashcards
1
Q
Motivation
A
- mental and behavioural processes that influence the direction, persistence, and vigour of goal-directed behaviour
(Motivation = expectancy + incentive value)
2
Q
Instinct
A
inherited predisposition to behave in a specific and predictable way when exposed to a particular stimuli
3
Q
Facts of instinct
A
- have genetic basis
- All members of a species has them
- Independent of learning (not nurture)
- Have survival value (instincts evolved over gens and provide certain adaptive advantages
- How instincts give survival advantage, we can understand role in motivation
4
Q
Homeostasis
A
- state of internal equilibrium or balance that the body strives to maintain
- Body has sensory mechanisms that detect changes, control system that decides what to do, response system that gets it done
(swear when too hot or shiver when cold)
5
Q
Psychological homeostasis
A
return to set point after disruption
6
Q
Drive theory
A
- disruptions to homeostasis produce drives
(states of internal tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways to reduce the tension)- Ex. feel hungry (disruption/tension) so you are driven to eat something
7
Q
Drive theory facts
A
- More to do with bodily functions but can be used to describe psychological states as internal tension
- Don’t always act to alleviate internal tension
- Consciously restricting our food consumption
- Staying awake for longer then we should
8
Q
Incentives
A
- environmental stimuli that pulls an organism toward a goal
- Focus on allure of external stimuli (dif, from drive theories that focus on internal tension and resolution)
- Usually distinct from, but often related to, internal drives
(Ex; eating dessert after you’ve finished a meal)
9
Q
Problems with incentives
A
- why do we respond differently to some incentives?
- Says nothing about how we think about incentives
10
Q
Expectancy
A
- goal-directed behaviour
11
Q
How is expectancy determined by 2 things?
A
- how strongly we expect our behaviours will lead to the desired outcome
- Value we place on outcome
12
Q
Extrinsic motivation
A
- doing something to gain a reward or to avoid punishment
- Imposed from outside
13
Q
Intrinsic Motivation
A
- doing something for its own sake, because you enjoy it or think its worthwhile
- no external force or coercion to do it
- Motivations come from own desires, thoughts, beliefs, goals, feelings, etc
14
Q
Can combine extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation to do something
A
- love job but also need to make a living
- External reward can undermine our intrinsic motivation to do something
15
Q
Psychodynamic theories
A
- behaviour is result of conflicts between our unconscious impulses/desires and psychological defences used to keep them under control
1) Disguise socially unacceptable behaviour through more appropriate behaviours
- ex: hide aggressive impulses through competitions
16
Q
Humanistic theories
A
- motivation through striving for personal growth
- Difference between deficiency needs (physical and social survival) and growth needs
- Growth needs are uniquely human and motivate us to develop our potential
(Takes 10,000 hours to become an expert at something)
17
Q
Problems with idea of hierarchy
A
- “self-actualization” is pretty vague
- Often deny some basic needs to feel fulfilled
18
Q
Growth needs
A
- self-actual action
- Aesthetic needs (beauty, symmetry)
- Cognitive needs (knowledge, understanding)
19
Q
Deficiency needs
A
- esteem needs (approval, recognition)
- Belongingness and love needs (affiliation, acceptance, affection)
- Safety needs (security, psychological safety)
- Physiological needs (food, drink)
20
Q
Regression
A
if lower needs are not met
21
Q
Progression
A
if lower needs are satisfied
22
Q
Self-determination theory
A
- have fundamental needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness
- Most fulfilled when we have all 3 kinds of needs met
23
Q
Competence
A
- master new challenges/skills
24
Q
Autonomy
A
- free choice without interference
25
Q
Relatedness
A
- Freire to form meaningful bonds with others
26
Q
Need for achievement
A
- desire to accomplish tasks and attain standards of excellence
27
Q
Motive for success
A
- attracted to the thrill of victory
- Get strong reward response when we complete task or win at something or do better then others
28
Q
Fear of failure
A
- pushed to avoid losing
- Measured by test that determine how much anxiety people experience in achievement situations
- People are more motivated by a fear of failure than a motive for success
29
Q
Fear of failure facts
A
- parents who reward or encourage achievement and don’t punish failure produce kids who have need for achievement
- Fear of failure is fostered through parental expectation of success and punishment of failure
30
Q
Cultural variations
A
- western/individualistic cultures stress personal achievement
- Eastern/collectivistic cultures stress group goals, fitting into family and social groups and meeting their expectations
31
Q
Achievement goal theory
A
- Focus on manner in which success is defined by individual and the situation itself
32
Q
Mastery orientation
A
- personal improvement, giving maximum effort, and perfecting skills
33
Q
Performance orientation
A
- want to outperform others
34
Q
Approach
A
- moving towards something
35
Q
Avoidance
A
- moving away from something
36
Q
Mastery-approach
A
I want to learn as much as I can
37
Q
Mastery-avoidance
A
“I dont want to learn nothing from this”
38
Q
Performance-approach
A
“I want to get the best grade”
39
Q
Performance-avoidance
A
“I don’t want to get the worse grade”
40
Q
Performance depends on type of task
A
- Tasks are easy and relaxed are associated with no difference between high or low need for achievement
- Tasks that are challenging and high-stress find high-need achievement people perform better then low-need achievement people
41
Q
High achievement
A
- people choose situations that present a middle-level of challenge (not too difficult, aka good chance of failure or too easy)
- People motivated by fear of failure will most often take the easiest option, given the choice
- Perception of task uncertainty is best predictive of success
42
Q
Hunger
A
- one of our most basic physiological needs and necessary for our survival
- Evolve a lot of mechanisms that involve eating, such as a reward response to sugar
- Imagine you could get all of your nutritional needs satisfied through pills
- People enjoy experience of eating
- Biological drive (need for nutrients) with a psychological incentive (tastes good)
43
Q
Metabolism
A
- body rate of energy utilization, measured in calories
- 2/3 of our energy usage goes to maintain basal metabolism (bare minimum needed to keep our cells going)
- Mechs that keep body in homeostasis by regulating food intake
44
Q
States of metabolism
A
- Hunger = more food intake
- Satiety = feeling full, don’t need more food
- Long-terms signals, based on body fat that adjust appetite and metabolism
45
Q
When do we feel hungry?
A
- stomach contradictions (noticed by tummy rumble) correspond to feelings of hungry, but don’t necessarily cause these feelings
- People who have their stomachs removed still feel hungry and/or full
- Animal research where nerves from stomach to brain been cut, still display hunger behaviours
- More to hunger then empty stomach
46
Q
Why do we feel full?
A
- partially from stomachs and intensities stretching as food fills them up, which sends nerves to the brain
- Nutritionally rich food seems to “fill us up” faster than equal volume of less nutritious food
- Food content may play a role in feeling full
47
Q
Chemicals in feeling full
A
- Chemical signals in the body also contribute to feeling hungry or full
- Hormones (peptides) are released by the intestines in response to food
48
Q
Chemical signals of hungry and satiety
A
- Gherkin
- Leptin
- CCK (cholecystokinin)
49
Q
CCK (cholecystokinin)
A
that is released when food reaches small intestine signals feeling of being “full”
50
Q
Gherkin
A
released by the stomach and small intestine and considered most important chemical hunger signal for humans
51
Q
Leptin
A
- hormone that is secreted by fat cells to actively regulate food intake
- Decreases appetite (gain fat, more leptin is secreted into blood stream)
- Does not make us feel full, but instead regulates other hunger/satiety signals
52
Q
Hunger Fact
A
- Hunger is not associated with immediate energy needs
- only felt hungry when our energy supply was low, we would be of serious medical problems - Evidence to suggest that body weight may have settling point
- previously thought we had a set point for body weight and that if we eat too much or not enough, homeostatic mechanisms would return us to our set point body weight
53
Q
Psychological aspects of hunger
A
- several areas of brain are associated with hunger and eating
- Lateral hypothalamus seemed to be a “hunger on” centre
54
Q
fMRI studies of exposure to environmental cues suggests…
A
that seeing/smelling food triggers motivation and reward centre’s in our brain
55
Q
How is fMRI explained?
A
- strength of brain activation is associated with body weight
- Ppl who show smaller responses to food stimuli lost weight, whereas those who showed large responses to food stimuli lost the least amount of weight
- Ppl with BMI over 30 show greater activity in brain areas associated with pleasure/reward aspect of food
56
Q
Learning and eating habits
A
- Positive reinforcement through good taste/reward centre of the brain, and negatively reinforced through hunger reduction
- Develop expectations that play role in our experience of food consumption
57
Q
Attitudes and habits develop overtime…
A
leading to habits of eating when not hungry
58
Q
Clean plate club
A
- told that you must finish everything on the plate, regardless of feeling full
- Snacking while doing certain tasks
- Keeping eating schedule despite not feeling hungry
59
Q
Sociocultural factors: Food
A
- influence by ppl around us
- Portion size
- People around you
- Amount that others eat
- Variety of foods available
60
Q
Food availability
A
can’t hear what’s not available
61
Q
Genetics
A
- account for 40-70% of variation in body mass
- 200> genes have been associated with human obesity
- Identical twins reared apart and together are roughly the same, adopted children resemble bio parent instead of adoptive
62
Q
Sexual motivation: biological
A
- sex is for reproduction
- Vast majority of sex is mot undertaken to conceive children
63
Q
Sexual behaviours that are NOT reproduction
A
- Masturbation
- Oral sex
- Anal sex
- Using birth control
- Having sex even after no longer being able to reproduce (post-menopause)
64
Q
Pleasure =/ reasons why people engage in sexual behaviour
A
- Peer pressure
- Something you have to do
- A lot of people don’t necessarily enjoy sex
65
Q
Possible reasons for engaging in sexual behaviour
A
- To reproduce
- Obtain
- Give pleasure
- Express love
- Foster intimacy
- Help one’s ego
- Fulfill a perceived “duty”
- Conform to peer pressure
- Get over broken relationship
- Earn money
66
Q
Hypothalamus
A
- tells pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropin hormones into blood stream
- Gonadotropin travels to gonads which secrete androgens (testosterone and estrogen)
- Sex hormones create physiological differences in males and females beginning in utero and again during puberty
67
Q
Hormones
A
- have activation affects that stimulate sexual desire and behaviour
68
Q
Hormone facts
A
- Males have relatively constant secretion of sex hormones
- Females have cycle of hormone release
- Normal short-term hormonal fluctuations have little effect on sexual arousability
- Baseline levels of testosterone appear to be necessary to maintain sexual desire in males and females
69
Q
Sexual fantasy
A
- imaginary sexual stimuli
- Half of men 1/5th women ages 18-59 fantasize about sex at least once a day
- People fantasize at least a little during sexual intercourse and not as a response to dissatisfaction with one’s partner
70
Q
Psychological factors that inhibit sex
A
- difficulty becoming or maintaining arousal due to stress, fatigue, anger, etc.
71
Q
Sexual dysfunction
A
- chronic, impaired sexual functioning that cause significant distress
72
Q
Sociocultural factors: Sex
A
- Religion
- Practices that encourage to prohibit sexual behaviours
- Cultural norms
- Permissibility of sexual behaviours
- Socially acceptable reactions to clothing, nudity and aspects of sex
- Permissibility of pornography
73
Q
Impact of porn: Social learning theory
A
- learn through observation
74
Q
Facts of porn
A
- No clear evidence that watching porn at younger age is linked with sexual violence
- Rates of sexual violence doesn’t seem to correlate well with availability of pornography
- Can influence our expectations and thoughts regarding sex
- Porn replaced young peoples go-to source for sex edu.
75
Q
Motivation conflict: Goals conflict
A
ex; wanting to do what you want vs meeting family expectations
76
Q
Approach-approach conflict
A
- two attractive goals competing with each other
77
Q
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
A
- lesser of two evils, having to choose between two undesirable alternatives
78
Q
Approach-avoidance conflict
A
- attracted and repelled by the same goal
- Starting a new diet program
- Switching majors in 4th yr
79
Q
Emotions
A
- +/- feelings consisting of a pattern of cognitive, physiological and behaviour reactions to internal or external events that have relevance to important goals or motives
- Both emotions and motivations have components of arousal and trigger patterns of action
- Tend to be more motivated by emotions then pure rational thinking
80
Q
Facts of emotions
A
Emotions signals something that important is happening and directed to our attention
- ex; fear (signals danger, triggers fight or flight)
81
Q
Broaden-and-build theory
A
- Positive emotions help us build social relations and broaden our thinking
82
Q
Social communication
A
- providing observable info about our internal states
- Consider how we treat people who have trouble reading emotional cues
83
Q
Components of emotion
A
- Cognitive appraisal
- Physiological response
- Behavioural tendencies
84
Q
Cognitive appraisal
A
interpret external/internal stimuli which gives situation its perceived meaning and sig.
85
Q
Physiological response
A
- sympathetic nervous system responds to event
- Increase heart-rate, breathing rate, sweat production
86
Q
Behavioural tendencies
A
- expressive behaviours
- Smiling, crying, laughing
- Instrumental behaviours
- Studying for test to relieve anxiety, fighting person who made you angry
87
Q
Facts of emotions: dynamics
A
Emotions are dynamic and ongoing process
- each aspect of emotion feed into others to influence how chain of emotions play out
- Appraisal of situation is largely an unconscious, automatic process in response dot electing stimuli
88
Q
Motion of emotions
A
- electing stimuli
- Cognitive appraisal
- Physiological response
- Expressive behaviour
- Instrumental behaviour
89
Q
Cognitive appraisal
A
- explains how ppl see same thing, react differently
90
Q
Cultural factors
A
- if everyone sees emotions as meaning the same thing, it would be strong evidence for emotions as a human universal
- Not all cultures recognize same emotional expressions
91
Q
Display rules:
A
- what emotions are appropriate to show under what circumstances
- Public
- Private
- Friends
- Family
92
Q
James-Lange Somatic theory
A
- think we cry we are sad
- J-L somatic theory suggests that we are sad, we are crying
- Body informs mind - fake smile and you will soon be happy
- Fake till make it
93
Q
Cannon-Bard Theory
A
- peoples bodies do not respond instantaneously to an emotional event (need time for the body to react)
- Seem to experience emotion almost immediately
- Brain send info about then event to our emotion centres and autonomic nervous system at the same time
- Cognitions nor arousal cause the others but are independent responses
94
Q
Cognitive-Affect theories
A
- how we think about, appraise or interpret the event makes a difference in how we react emotionally
- About how hearing people laughing as you walk down the street
- Latter has specific emotions for specific stimuli
- Seeing bear = afraid
- Hearing insult = anger
95
Q
Emotions as motivation
A
- often motivated by emotions then thought/reason
- Not good at dealing with large numbers in an abstract way
- Emotions change our decision-making processes
96
Q
Personality
A
- distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that characterize a person’s responses to events and situations
97
Q
Attributes to personality
A
- Components of identity
- Perceived internal cause
- Perceive organization and structure
98
Q
Different from others
A
- Components of ID
- How you behave - reflections of internal causes rather than environmental
- Consistent your behaviours are relative to each other — suggests inner factors that guide and direct behaviours
99
Q
Freud’s psychoanalytic approach
A
- ID (the pleasure principle)
- EGO (reality and median for ID and SUPER EGO)
- SUPEREGO (heavenly values)
100
Q
Conscious
A
- immediate awareness of current environment
101
Q
Preconscious
A
- available to awareness (e,g., names of friends, home address)
102
Q
Unconscious
A
- unavailable to awareness (infantile memories, repressed wishes and conflicts)
103
Q
Psychosexual stages
A
- Oral stage
- Anal stage
- Phallic stage
- Latency
- Genital
104
Q
Oral stage (birth - 1yr)
A
- Centred around infants mouth
- Conflict = too much (over-fed) or too little (weaned early)
105
Q
- Anal stage (1-3yrs)
A
- Child wants can often from into conflict with what parents expect of them
- If not done correctly, can go horribly wrong
- Anal retentive
- Hates mess, overly tidy, punctual, suborn
- Anal expulsive
- Likes sharing, messy, disorganized, rebellious
- Anal retentive
- If not done correctly, can go horribly wrong
106
Q
Phallic stage (3-6 yrs)
A
- Conflict = oedipus complex (boys), Electra complex (girls)
- If not properly resolved
- Males = overly aggressive, ambitious, vain
- Females = want to dominate men by becoming overly seductive (high self-esteem) or overly submissive (low self-esteem)
- If not properly resolved
107
Q
Latency (6-puberty)
A
- Nothing happening, just calm in-between
- Child to busy with school and friends
108
Q
Genital (puberty onward)
A
- Purpose = psychological detachment and independent from parents
- Gental stage is centred upon genitalia, but sexuality is consensual and adult
- Concern shifts from primary-drive gratification (instinct) to apply secondary process-thinking to gratify desire
- Symbolically
- Intellectually
109
Q
Defence mechanisms
A
- conflict between ID, EGO/SUPEREGO creates anxiety
- Anxiety signals that there’s something writing and ego needs to do something
- Anxiety can be reduced through realistic coping mechanism
110
Q
Repression
A
- anxiety-arousal impulses are pushed into unconscious
111
Q
Denial
A
- refusing to acknowledge anxiety-arousing aspects of environment
112
Q
Displacement
A
- unacceptable or dangerous impulse is repressed and redirected at a safer substitute
113
Q
Intellectualization
A
- emotion connected with an event is repressed and the situation is dealt with as an intellectual curiosity
114
Q
Projection
A
- unacceptable impulse is repressed and then attributed to other people
115
Q
Rationalization:
A
- constructing a false but plausible explanation or excuse for an anxiety-arousal behaviour or event that has occurred
116
Q
Reaction formation
A
- unacceptable impulse is repressed and its psychic energy finds release in an exaggerated expression of the opposite behaviour
117
Q
Sublimation
A
- repressed impulse is release in the form of a socially acceptable or admired behaviour
118
Q
Facts about Freud:
A
- Favoured clinical observation and case studies, best source of evidence is everyday behaviour and clinical phenomena
- Opposed experimental research
119
Q
Humanistic theories
A
- emphasis on self-actualization
- Total realization of one’s human potential
120
Q
George Kelly (1905-1967)
A
- want to make sense of out of the world, find personal meaning in it
- Feel anxious when we can’t and seek out ways to explain and understand events of our lives
121
Q
Personal constructs:
A
- cognitive categories in which people sort the events and people in their lives
122
Q
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
A
- behaviour is a response to our immediate conscious experience of self and environment
The self:
- organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself
Self-concept:
- modernized term for “the shelf”
123
Q
Self-consistency
A
- an absence of conflict among self-perceptions
124
Q
Congruence
A
- consistency between self-perceptions and experience
125
Q
Self-esteem
A
- how positive or negative we feel about ourselves
Facts:
- important to our personal well-being, happiness and adjustment related to many (+) behaviours and life-outcomes
126
Q
High-self esteem
A
- leads to less susceptibility to social pressure, fewer interpersonal problems, happier lives, greater personal achievement and more capable of forming satisfying love
- Not always great, unrealistic and/or unstable, may react aggressively when self-esteem is threatened
127
Q
Low-self esteem
A
- associated with under-achievement, psychological problems (mood disorders), physical illness and poor social relations
128
Q
Need for positive regard
A
- acceptance
- Sympathy
- Love From others
- Essential for healthy development
- Ideally comes from parents - positive regard independent of how child behaves
- Communicates child is inherently worthy of love
129
Q
Lack of
A
- Positive regard
- Adapt behaviours
- Conditions of worth
130
Q
- Positive regard
A
- Teaches someone to view themselves as only worthy of approval and love when they meet certain standards
131
Q
- Adapt behaviours
A
- “Condition of worth”
- Received parental approval when being happy and disapproval of their own feelings of sadness
132
Q
- Conditions of worth
A
- Create incongruence between self and experience a need to deny/distort important aspects of experience
133
Q
Self-verification
A
- preserving one’s self-concept by maintaining self-consistency and congruence
- Tend to seek out self-confirming relations, staying with people who conform our view of ourself
134
Q
Self-enhancement
A
- tendency to gain and preserve a positive self-image
- Partially through self-serving bias
- Rate ourselves better then average on most socially desirable metrics
135
Q
Fully functioning person
A
- Don’t hide behind masks or adopt artificial roles
- Sense of inner freedom, self-determination, and choice in the direction of their growth
- Inner acceptance, outer experiences as they are without modifying them defensively to suit a rigid self-concept or the expectations of others
- Can be true to themselves
- 5-7 key characteristics (depends who you ask)
136
Q
5-7 key characteristics (depends who you ask)
A
- Openness to experience
- Existential living
- Trust feelings
- Creativity
- Rich/fulfilled life
- Freedom of choice
- Reliability
- Constructiveness
137
Q
Cross-culture ideas about self
A
- Individualistic cultures (North America and Europe) place higher emphasis on independence and personal attainment
- Collectivist cultures place higher emphasis on connection between people and achievement of group goals
- Completing “I am…” sentences
- American students: dispositions, personality traits, abilities
- Japanese students: social identity traits
- Cultural differences can also be a product of bias in testing
138
Q
4 possible answers for cross-culture
A
- Physical traits
- Personality traits
- Social roles
- Existential roles
