Italian Unification Flashcards
What types of Political States were there?
The 18th Century was dominated by Kings and empires
“Divine Right of Kings”
What were the chief exceptions to rule via King?
The United Provinces (the Netherlands)
Venice
Switzerland
Britain –> A bit of both
What was the Enlightenment Period and how did it possibly give rise to the chance that Unification may occur?
Enlightenment was a force for change in the 18th century
The intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment gave rise to theories that questioned the power of kings
An example of this is Jean Jacques Rousseau Social Contract Theory
The revolution of the American colonies against British rule, starting in 1774 and ending with American independence in 1783, encouraged the spread of ideas about representative government
How did Romanticism contribute to Italian Unification?
The 18th century was characterised by a revival of classical forms in the arts and a culture based on the past
The established tradition was one of respect for authority, multinational empires and the right of kings and princes to rule.
Romanticism meant less respect for authority: individuality was viewed as more important, and freedom of expression and the creation of new forms to express feelings were encouraged
Dress and manners became less formal; there was renewed interest in the history of nationalities and a greater desire for nationalities to bond together
What was the Situation of Italy like before 1815?
Italy was a concept rather than a country
Contemporaries referred to Italy in an equivalent way that we might refer to the ‘Arab World’
Clemens Von Metternich described Italy as a “geographical expression”
The different states had little in common and other were different traditions, languages, and levels
Economic Barriers: poor communication and barriers to travel
What was the Piedmont-Savoy or Kingdom of Sardina like before 1815?
Savoy was occupied by France in 1792 and its people considered themselves French
Mountains separated Piedmont from Savoy, which was viewed as Italian
What was the Political Situation in Italy?
There were 3 republics - Genoa, Venice and Lucca - but these were oligarchies
Piedmont was an absolute monarchy - that is, the word of the King was law
The Papal states were rules as an absolute monarchy, as were Sicily and Naples
Smaller Duchies such as Parma, had no political freedom
What were the North Italian States and who ran them?
Piedmont - House of Savoy
Lombardy - Austrian Rule
Venetia - Austria Important
How did Napoleon manage to announce himself the ‘King of Italy’?
1792 - The French attacked the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardina, acquiring Nice and Savoy
1796 - Napoleon gained control of the army in Italy and, after the war with the Austrians in Lombardy managed to control the whole of the Italian Peninsula
1805 - Announced himself the King of Italy
Map of Italy pre-Napoleon?
SEE
How did Napoleon divide the Italian states?
1798 - Did away with the old, complicated patterns of state and divided most of the country into 4 separate Republics
1810 - Divided the country again but only into three parts
What were the 3 Italian states by 1810?
- One Third was annexed and ruled over as the Kingdom of France (Northwest Italy including Piedmont, together with the Duchies and the Papal states
- Another Third ruled as the Kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon’s stepson acting as a viceroy. This included Lombardy, Modena and Bologna etc:
- The Last Third was the Kingdom of Naples, not Sicily which was ruled by Britain
Who was the Kingdom of Naples after 1810 run by?
The ruling dynasty were no longer the bourbons.
Instead, Napoleon’s brother, Joesph, ruled it
Picture of 1810 Italy?
SEE
How was life under the rule of Napoleon bad?
Traumatic ‘from every point of view’
the ‘brutality and irreligion of the French soldiery’ were largely to blame’
A substantial number of men were required for the French army and a great deal of money was needed to train, equip and feed the French soldiers and the Italian conscripts
This evidenced with 27,000 Italian soldiers accompanying Napoleon to Russia and losing all their horses and cannons in the process
60% taxation rate and people and people hated conscription
How was the Church influenced under Napoleon?
Suffered severely
Power reduced greatly
Two Popes imprisoned
1809- Temporal power was declared to be at an end
1814 - All monasteries had been closed by the French and the Church lands were sold off
How did the Wealthy live under French Rule?
Accounts vary widely
The Cavours seem to have done well out of the purchase of Church lands
While d’Azeglio, in memoirs written half a century later, complained that this family was ruined under French rule
How did Urban Groups live under French Rule?
Substantial benefits from French rule for most of the 10% or so Italians who lived in towns
External customs barriers were simplified and internal trade barriers between the Italian states were swept away, weight and measures were standardised, tax collection was reorganised, and new roads were built
How did the Peasants live under French Rule?
80% of Italians in the early nineteenth century lived a life far remote from the elite and the middle classes
Considered as unworthy, uneducated etc:
What were Marriage customs like under French Rule?
Marzio Barzagli
In the south comparatively young –>
Men –> 25
Women –> 19
What were Occupations like under French Rule?
Lived in dark, damp cottages that they shared with livestock
They tilled their fields with wooden ploughs
Carried their crops home on their back
They only crop they could grow regularly was maize, but this caused vitamin deficiency and led to pellagra (which caused 95,000 cases in one year)
Thus, some men became bandits
Overcrowding in a house (of 80 people)
What are Foundling Hospitals and when were they implemented?
Common during Napoleon’s Era of Italy
Conclusion of Napoleonic Era in France?
Effects are paradoxical
Many Italians were influenced by the French thought of the time so they wanted to imitate them
On the other hand, French rule fell too all lamentably short of the standards it aspired to
When did Italy’s state come to an end and what happened to the country next?
1815 - Napoleon finally defeated
Congress of Vienna follows to decide what happens next:
They returned the Italian states to what it had looked like previously
Map of Italy after the congress of Vienna?
SEE MAP
How was land divided after Napoleon?
Piedmont - Restored to its King Victor Emannuel I
His territory now enlarged to include Savoy, recovered from France, and also Genoa
Papal States returned to the Pope
King Ferdinand was restored in the south
The Central Duchies were returned to the Austrians
What happened at the Congress of Vienna regarding the situation of Italy?
COV –> Austria to control a large portion of Italy
They believed that Stability was needed especially after the period of upheaval
It was decided that the French were to never be allowed to rule Italy again
What did Metternich say regarding Italian Unification in 1815?
Metternich also said ‘Italian affairs do not exist’ –> They don’t want an Italy
Did the Peasants care about who was ruling them in 1815?
Nobody cared nor did they know
They would have been pressed either way
What happened to the old rulers of Italy before Napoleon Napoleon left?
They came back and were nervous to do so
The nobility welcomed their arrival
What was lifelike under the Restored Monarchs?
They weren’t considered as Regressive for trying to be friends with the Habsburg family
They were trying to restore order and laws to an absolute government (like Pre Napoleonic Times)
Why may Revisionist Historians argue that Restored Monarchs weren’t regressive?
They argued that only in a few cases did the Government act in a Regressive way:
Most of the opposition didn’t come due to popular demands being ignored in the government but rather due to modernisation
Although most Restoration governments used censorship etc: so did many other European states in the Early Nineteenth Century
Give some examples of Progressive Restoration in 1815 In Tuscany?
In Tuscany, Ferdinand improved education by reorganizing universities
He expended money on Healthcare
He allowed Freedom of Expression to a degree but not seen anywhere else in Italy
Hence, the journal Antologica:
- Contributors included some of the great intellectual figures such as Guizeppe Mazinni
Examples of Progressive Restoration in 1815 in Parma?
Duchess Marie Louise
She repealed the Code Napoleon
How was Piemont Ruled in 1815?
Tried to recreate the good old days
Middle Class Officials and non noble army officers were dismissed (Napoleon’s donnies) replaced by old noble families
King even went to lengths of ploughing up parks and tearing down gaslight because the French introduced them
Old customs barriers introduced and Nobles given back their land
How were the Papal States ruled after Napoleon?
‘zealots’ held a tight grip on education and laws
The Pope effectively ran everything, and the lay population had no say
Inquisition sometimes used to torture people who wanted modernisation
It was even forbidden to say the Earth revolved around the Sun
The Pope were the most backwards and lacked economic development and there was an extreme amount of persecution amongst the Jews
Life in Naples after Napoleon?
SEE
What did Napoleon say regarding Italy as a country?
‘Italy is one nation. Unity of customs, language and literature”
How did Nationalism contribute to Unification?
National Feeling had been present since the 1800s
After Napoleon, intellectuals became more interested in Italian history and culture, gaining more confidence that the Italians were a cultural nation
Philosophers highlighted that a nation is unified via lang
Was there a national language straight after the Napoleonic period?
No Italian Language, but some believe there wasn’t that much linguistic variety
What were some weaknesses of Italian Nationalism straight after Napoleon?
There was local discontent with existing rulers. How could this be turned into Nationalism
Can Italian Nationalism override a particular nationalism of the state?
Would Italian Nationalism be strong enough and would enough people attend protests etc:/
How many Revolutions occurred in the Italian state’s pre–Italian Unification?
3
1820-1, 1831-2, 1848
How were the first two Italian Revolutions different to the third one?
Revolutions of 1820 and 1831 were moderate protests against an oppressive ruler rather than a new Italian nation state
Why did the Revolutions of 1820 and 1831 fail?
They totally failed, owing to divisions amongst themselves
Lack of Mass Support
The Might of the Austrian Army
Why do people say Nationalism caused Unification?
One popular opinion is to express the importance of nationalism
This produced the Risorgimento –> A revival or awakening of Italy amounting to a national rebirth
Such an interpretation implies that Italy did not come because of war or diplomacy but because of its own growth as well as its increased population
This was done by Cavour and Garibaldi who used precise timing brought the conclusion of the Risorgeminto
Criticisms of saying Nationalism caused Unification.
British Historians cannot see the nationalist movement proceeding to the unification mainly because of the failures of Italy after 1861 (politically) and eventually succumbing to Mussolini
They argued that the different divisions of Nationalists, as well as France helping them to defeat Austria, was more impactful than Nationalism
Background of the Italian Liberals in 1815?
Wanted a constitutional Monarchy
Background of Radical Views in 1815?
Wanted social reforms and a fairer redistribution of wealth
No form of government unless elected by all men
Little thought of giving votes to women and peasants
Background of Metternich’s beliefs on Italy in 1815?
Italian Nationalism is bad
They would undermine Austrian control of Italy and the whole of Italy
In 1815, he claimed there were “no Italians”
Metternich was not alone in his beliefs. Many intelligent, well-educated men saw nothing but difficulty in Italian unification
Hence the Piedmontese ambassador wrote to the Russians that the Genoans and the Italians could not unite because they are “different people”
What is the Carbonari?
Secret Societies located in Naples (southern Italy)
Most well-known (around 60k men in Naples)
They had elaborate rituals and swore obedience to them leaders
Weaknesses of the Carbonari?
Some were Catholics and not committed republicans
They weren’t at all Radical
In Naples an Piedmont they wanted to establish a Constitutional Monarchy
Why did Revolution in 1820 in Naples take place?
Began in 1820
Stemmed from 1818 when where King Ferdinand had increased the Churches power to suppress the public and censor books
This angered the middle class –> Freedom of Speech was now impossible
Ferdinand had no money, so he had to cut back on infrastructure
How did Revolution in Naples in 1820 take place?
Jan 1820 - words of Revolution in Spain encouraged Liberals and the Carbonari to do the same
Led by a Priest and supported by one hundred officers and soldiers from the Calvary, 30 Carbonari members advanced on the town of Avenillo
Attempt to round up Rebels was very half-hearted, Pepe (once an army commander) now joined the Italian rebels
Aftermath of the Revolution of Naples in 1820?
Ferdinand met the Rebels demands
Given the vote to all adult males, limited the King’s power and abolished many noble and clerical privileges
King Ferdinand swore to God he would abide by these changes
Pepe became in charge in Naples
Why were their Revolutions in Sicily?
The Sicilians were united with Naples and felt as though Ferdinand II were ignoring their needs by focusing on Naples
Agricultural prices had fallen –> People become poorer
What happened in the Revolutions of Sicily?
There was a demand for constitution
Offices were burnt down
Prisoners were released
The Neapolitan government was sent home by the boat
Why did the Revolutions of Naples and Sicily fail?
In 1821, King Ferdinand II declared to Metternich that he had been forced to draw a constitutional Monarchy out of fear
He asked Austria and Metternich for help
The Austrians came in and slaughtered both states and banned Trade Gilds in Sicily as well as executed a lot of people
How did the Revolution of Piedmont in 1820-1 begin?
Victor Emmanuel, I was in rule at the time and pursued a very reactionist policy claiming absolute rule
When news of this came out that he would continue absolutist rule, the liberals and university students banded together
They then declared war on Austria
This was further amplified by the mutiny in Turin
King Emmannuel saw the situation as hopless abdicated
What happened in the Revoluitions of Piedmont in 1820-1?
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How did the Revolution of 1831-2 come about?
In 1830 a revolution led Charles X to abdicate
He was replaced by King Louis Phillipe who was far more liberal (aka the ‘citizen king’)
Hence, Italian liberals became excited by the possibility that the new French Government would back the Italians in the fight for unification
What happened in Modena and Parma during the Revolution if 1831-2?
BHH
Who led the Revolution of Modena and Parma in 1831-2
Enrico Misley, the student son of a university professor
What happened after Emmanuel abdicated in 1820 (Piedmont)?
Now turned to leadership to the young Charles Albert
He issued a vague proclamation praising the Spanish constitution
What were the problems that occured after Charles Albert came in charge at Piedmont?
Victor Emmanuel’s brother was the legitimate ruler and not Charles Albert
How did the Revolutions of 1830 come about in SIicily?
Organised by professional classes who resented the rule of the Pope
Papal Government put up little resistance and ‘The Government of the Italian Provinces was established instead
It did not last long as Metternich’s forces joined in and defeated the Italians
Successes and Failures of the Revolutions of the 1830s?
It only got worse –> Reactionary Governments managed to get an even stronger grip (by the help of Metternich)
Whilst there was initial success in developing a new government in some states these were short-lived because the new rulers eventually abdicated remembering the French Revolution of the late 18th century (and what happened to the new rulers there)
Why did the Revolutions of the 1830s fail?
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Who was Guisseppe Mazzini?
Mazzini insisted that he had “one overriding aim” –> “Brotherhood of people”
Believed in the equality of human beings
He believed that Nations would become dominant in the later centuries so he wanted a united Italy
He didn’t want a federal Italy
What did Karl Marx say about Mazzini?
Karl Marx described Mazzini as that ‘everlasting old ass’
How much of an impact did Mazzini have on unification?
Inspired many disciples but did not follow the exact trajectory he had hoped for.
Italy came to be unified more ‘from above’ than ‘from below’, much to his disgust
What was the significance of Mazzini to Italian Unification?
Gave tremendous impetus to Italian nationalism
Spent most of his time organising propaganda
He ‘converted’ many to the cause
Easily the most important of his recruits was Giuseppe Garibaldi, who involved himself in a proposed Mazzinian revolt in Genoa in 1831
The scheme failed but Garibaldi escaped before his trial and was sentenced to death in his absence
He recalled of Mazzini that ‘he alone was awake when all around were slumbering’
Mazzono whom many considered an impractical dreamer became President of Rome
What were Mazzini’s major weaknesses?
His ideas were too intellectual to grasp for the most people
Far too Radical for most cautious, middle-class reformers
He was also absent from Italy for such extended periods - totalling in all over 40 years - that he became out of touch with the situation, exaggerating the development of national identity among the bulk of Italians
It is untrue that he failed to appreciate the revolutionary potential of the peasants, but it must be admitted that he knew relatively little about them and had little contact
Who was the leader of Piedmont at the time of Mazzini?
Cesare Balbo
What did Cesare Balbo propose?
Proposed that their state should lead the other Italian states in an attempt to drive out the Austrians
They argued that only Piedmont was strong enough to reclaim Lombardy and Venetia from the Austrians and rally the other Italian states into some sort of union
Proposals were put forward that Charles Albert should be the future king of a united Italy
Pope Pius IX?
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Origins of the Revolutions of 1848-9
There were an overwhelming number of problems:
Piedmont and Tuscany –> Press censorship were abolished, and proposals were made for a joint customs union with the Papal States
There was a chorus of discontent in Italy that was becoming even louder
Liberals were calling for constitutions, govt reforms and political freedom, while nationalists demanded independence from Austria and some measure of Italian unity
The situation became more acute owing to economic problems
About 90% of the population if Italy worked onthe land and the Italian economy was based almost entirely on agriculture
There was little industry in the north and almost none in the south of the country
When the harvests failed in 1846 and 1847, problems multiplied not only for the peasants but also for those in the towns
Shortages of wheat and Mazie meant soaring prices, wages did not rise to meet the increased costs, and peasants and others could not afford to feed their families
What was the course of the Revolutions in Naples and Sicily 1848-9?
In Jan 1848 Notices were posted in Palermo:
Notice went on to explain weapons would be handed out to those who came to the man public square
Streets full of people
Whether they were ordinary sightseers or revolutionaries is impossible to say
Arms handed out and they overthrow the government
Neopolitan army retaliated but too late
The Revolutionaries demanded a restoration of the famous 1812 constitution
Aftermath of Naples Sicilian Revolution?
Fighting between the Neopolitan army and the Revolutionaries continued
Provisional Government set up
Parliament was elected and declared that Naples and Sicily were totally seperate
