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Immunity Flashcards

1
Q

What is the lymphatic system comprised of?

A

Lymph
Lymph nodes
Lymph vessels

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2
Q

Define lymph fluid

A

Travels through a system of vessels and baths all body cells allowing them to drain into the vessels

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3
Q

What special feature do lymph vessels have?

A

They have valves which control a one way motion of fluid

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4
Q

Why does the lymph rely on for movement

A

Muscle contraction

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5
Q

What is the relationship between the circulatory system and the lymphatic system?

A

Joins up at the neck and drains into the blood stream

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6
Q

What is blood composed of

A
  • Red blood cells
  • White blood cells
  • Platelets
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7
Q

What is another name for white blood cells?

A

Leukocytes

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8
Q

What is the red of the red blood cell

A

To transport oxygen around the body

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9
Q

What is the role of the leukocytes

A

Cells that have specific roles in 2nd and third line of defence

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10
Q

Explain all three lines of defence

A
  1. Barrier to prevent the entry of the pathogens into the body
  2. Non-specific immune response: try to destroy every pathogen that is encountered
  3. Specific immune response only attack specific pathogens
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11
Q

What can the specific and non-specific also be known as?

A

Adapative and Inate

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12
Q

Explain the first line of defence

A

The first round of defence mechanism that they meet is a non-specific response which is a range of chemical and physical barriers.
NO MEMORY of the pathogen is formed after the invasion

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13
Q

List the chemical barriers for the first line of defence

A

-Acids
-Enzymes
-Mucous Membrane: traps microorganisms
-Tears
Sebum

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14
Q

List the physical barriers for the first line of defence

A
  • intact skin: waterproof layer
  • cilia: filter air
  • nasal hairs: filter air
  • hair
  • ear wax: traps pathogens
  • eyelashses
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15
Q

What are “non-self” molecules

A

Foregin cells or particles

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16
Q

What are self molecules

A

Molecules that belong to that particular organism

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17
Q

Define Antigen

A

A foreign substance that causes the immune system to make a specific immune response

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18
Q

Where are MHC markers founds?

A

proteins that are found on the surface of the cells membrane

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19
Q

Are all MHC markers the same

A

Determined by genes therefore each individual has their own MHC markers

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20
Q

What do MHC markers allow?

A

The body to recognise that the cell belongs to itself

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21
Q

What are the two classes of MHC markers and explain them

A

Class 1 MHC- Found on all body cells that have a nucleus

Class II MHC- Located on antigen presenting white blood cell: B and T lymphocytes

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22
Q

Where do all blood cells come from?

A

Bone marrow of the long bones in the body

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23
Q

What are all blood cells derived from?

A

Stem Cells

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24
Q

What is the one group of cells that do not mature in the bone marrow?

A

T cells leave the bone marrow and mature in the thymus

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25
Q

Is there any memory pathogen formed in the second line of defence?

A

NO

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26
Q

Define phagocytes

A

They are white blood cells that move to the point of pathogen entry and are formed in the bone marrow.

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27
Q

Where are phagocytes located?

A

Normally will move freely through the lymhatic and circulatory system, but will leave in order to track down pathogens

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28
Q

How do phagocytes get rid of the pathogen?

A

They engulf the pathogens via endocytosis and then will digest the pathogen

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29
Q

Explain a macrophage

A

They have a long life span and work on various agents

-They detect and destroy by following the chemical trail of the microbe

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30
Q

What if the pathogen is too large for the macrophage to destroy it?

A

Many phagocytes attach to the pathogen

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31
Q

What happens when a macrophage is injesting a pathogen?

A

Will display the antigens fragments on its own cell surface in order to activate other parts of the immune system

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32
Q

Explain neutrophils

A

Most common type of white blood cell, live a short live span and can squeeze in between cells

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33
Q

Explain eosinophils

A

Secrete enzymes to make holes

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34
Q

Explain Basophils

A

Secrete histamines causing inflammation

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35
Q

Explain Natural Killer Cells

A

They attack and kill viral-infected cells by attacking their cell membranes and causing them to lyse

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36
Q

Explain complement proteins

A

Group of proteins that assist phagocytes in recognising pathogens

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37
Q

Where are complement proteins found?

A

They continually circulate in the blood

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38
Q

Where are complement proteins secreted from?

A

Macrophages

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39
Q

When do complement proteins become activated?

A

When encountering a foreign body and activating one causes another to be activated (domino effect)

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40
Q

How do complement proteins function?

A

Attach to antibodies on the invading micro-organism and act as flags making the pathogen more identifiable and attracting more phagocytes to it

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41
Q

What do complement proteins do when they come in contact with bacteria and fungi?

A

They lyse the cell causing their substances to leak out.

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42
Q

Define Cytokines

A

Chemical signals that allow communications between cells

43
Q

Explain interferons

A
  • Secreted byy virally infected cells
  • Induces resistance to viral infection in the surrounding cells
  • Act as a warning signal from the affected cell to other cells
44
Q

What causes inflammation?

A

Histamines released from mast cells causing local aterioles to exapand

45
Q

What happens during inflammation?

A

Capillaries dilate and permeability of the blood vessels increase

46
Q

What are the benefits of inflammation?

A

Neutrophils and macrophages are able to squeeze into the infected tissue.
-Pain causes reduced voluntary movement in the area

47
Q

What is fever telling us

A

That there is an infection

48
Q

Explain the process in getting a fever

A

Macrophages release interleukin-1

-interleukin sends a message to the hypothalamus causing the body temperature to rise

49
Q

What are the benefits of a fever?

A

High temperature is not good functioning environment for the pathogen
-Interleukins cause drowsiness thus allowing more energy to be used for destroying pathogens and repairing damaged tissues

50
Q

What are lymph nodes?

A

Sections along the lymph vessels in which contain white blood cells

51
Q

Why do lymph nodes swell in infection

A

White blood cells are multiplying at a rapid rate in order to over come the invader

52
Q

Where do the B cells mature

A

Thymus

53
Q

What is the third line of defence

A

Specific

54
Q

Explain humoral immunity

A

-involves the resistance to disease via the production of antibodies that bind to specfic antigens

55
Q

Give an overview of humoral immunity

A
  • B cells divied when stimulated by non self MHC
  • Produce plasma B and memory B
  • Plasma B produces a large amount of anitbodies
  • Memory B cells will stay in body to help protect against that particular pathogen again
56
Q

Define anti-body

A

A protein molecule produced by B cells designed to attach to only one type of antigen

57
Q

Where do B cells carry the antibodies

A

Cell membrane

58
Q

List the types of Pathogens and their functions

A

IgM-Affective in aggulation and allow easy disposal via phagocytosis
IgG-Activate complement proteins and can neutralise toxins directly
IgA -Neutralises pathogens in respitory, digestive and reproductive tract
IgD-Antigen receptor on B cells
IgE- Initiate inflammation causing an allergic rection

59
Q

What happens when the antigen is presented to the B Cell?

A

Rapidly divides and clones into plasma B cells and memory B cells

60
Q

What do plasma B cells do

A

Produces free antibodies at a rate of thousand/second and release them straight into the blood stream.

61
Q

What happens to the antibody used to fight the infection

A

Remains attached to the memory cells

62
Q

Longevity Memory vs plasma

A

Memory cells last a long time where as plasma cells die within days via apoptosis

63
Q

List four ways in which antibodies help to destroy pathogens

A
  1. Coat pathogens and neutralise particles by blocking binding sites
  2. Agglutination of antigen-bearing particles exposes the pathogens to being engulfed by phagocytes
  3. Precepipataiton of soluble pathogens
  4. Antbodies activate complement proteins which cause the cellular pathoegn to lyse.
64
Q

Explain what happens in a secondary immune response

A

Occurs due to secondary exposure due to the same pathogen.
B cells react a lot faster and anti-bodies are produced at a much larger rate due to memory cells
-Usually will not suffer symptoms

65
Q

Explain Antigen Presenting Cells

A

-have receptors on their membranes that bind to antigens
e.g macrophages
Enhance response as they take the antigen to other immune cells e.g B and T cels

66
Q

When does the primary response occur?

A

When first come in contact with the pathogen

67
Q

What happens in the primary response

A
  • Macrophage eats the pathogen and essentially puts the pathogens and antigens on their own membrane.
  • The antigen fragment is displayed on a Class II MHC marker
  • The macrophage then releases interleukin (which attracts t-helper cells)
  • Helper T cells then release interleukin-2 and this activates B cells and ctyotoxic T cells and more helper T cells
68
Q

Explain the process of cell mediated immunity

A
  • Macrohpage engulfs then displays antigen
  • Then carried to the lymph node where lots of T cells are waiting
  • It also releases interleukin I to attract T helper cells
  • Then more T helper cells have become stimulated and B cells and cytotoxic T cells and more T helper cells have been activated
  • Cytotoxic T cells will kill body cell that have the pathogen
  • Then finally suppressor T cells turn off the specific immune response
69
Q

List the three types of T cells

A

Helper
cytotoxic
suppressor

70
Q

Explain Helper T cells

A

Recognise antigens that are bound to B cell antibodies or have been engulfed and displayed on the surface of a macrophage. They release interleukin 2- which mobilises and activated B and T cell

71
Q

Explain Cytotoxic T cells

A
72
Q

Explain T Suppressor Cell

A

Regulates the action of lymphocytes and stops activity when the invader has been defeated. Helps the system to not overreact and waste resources.

  • Directly kills immmune cells
  • Inhibits secretion of immune cells
  • Secretingg proteins that alter immune cell function
73
Q

Explain Organ Transplant Rejection

A

-Donors organs contain foreign antigens therefore the receivers immune system will produce anti-bodes against it and that will cause the body to reject the organ.

74
Q

How can organ transplant be solved?

A

Drugs such as cyclosporine have been developed to lower intensity of the immune system so it does not reject with the antigens

75
Q

Explain RHESUS factor ini regards to pregnacy

A
  • RHESUS is a blood group which has positive and negative sides to it and is determined by genes
  • If the mother is RH- and her first child is Rh+ then she will have memory cells for the Rhetus antigen. IN subsequent preganancies Rh+ babies that baby may be at risk from an immune response from the mother
76
Q

Give an overview of vaccination

A
  • Contains dead or weakened organisms, invert particles, toxoids or component vaccines
  • Injected into the blood strem to cause the production of B cells
  • If someone who has recieved the vaccine comes incontact with the pathogen the response will be alot faser
77
Q

Describe Live vaccines

A

Bacteria or virus that has bee altered usually created from the germ itself, Viruses are weakened by growing them over and over in a lab

78
Q

Explain killed vaccines

A

Killed bacteria or inactivated virus

79
Q

Describe Toxoid viruses

A

Contain toxins that are produced by the germ

80
Q

Explain component vaccines

A

Pars of whole bactieria/viruses

81
Q

Define Acquired Immunity

A

Immunnity to a disease is either inherited or acquired. Acquired can be classifed as natural or artfiical

82
Q

Deine NAtural Immunity

A

Natural exposes from everyday life to an antigen

83
Q

Define artifical immunity

A

Immunisation or vaccination, deliberate exposure to a pathogen

84
Q

Define active immunity

A

Occurs after exposure to antigen, the individuals own immune system responds to it

85
Q

Define NAatural Active

A

Occurs when you naturally come across a pathogen

A memory is formed

86
Q

Define Artifical Active

A

Occurs via vaccination

A memory forms

87
Q

Define passive immunity

A

Results from the transfer of antibodies

88
Q

Define Natural Passive

A

Antibodies that are recieved naturally e.g via breast feeding

89
Q

Define Artifical PAssive

A

Antibodies receivesd via an injection e.g snake antivenom

90
Q

Explain Auto Immune Disorders and give an example

A

The immune system attacks its own tissue belonging to itself, and attacking tissues with ‘self” MHC markers. In these diseases the immune system mistakenly attacks particular tisse
e.g Muliple sloriss

91
Q

Explain allergic Reaction

A

-Excessive immune responses upon renewed exposure to usually harmless antigens

92
Q

What occurs in an allergic reaction

A

One type of antibody IgE is produced and binds to mast cells which then release vesicles of histamine into the blood stream

93
Q

What does increased levels of histamine cause>

A
  • Swelling and inflammation

- Contraction of smooth muscle e.g lungs

94
Q

What are complement proteins?

A

A group of proteins that assist phagocytes in recognsing the prescence of pathogens

95
Q

In the primary response of specific immunity

A

A macrophae captures the protein and will advertise some of its antigen it on its own cell membrane, the antigen will be advertied on the MHC Class II marker

  • It will then release interleukin 1 to attract T-helper cells
  • T-helper cells will then release interleukin 2 and this willa ctive B cells, cytotoxic T cells and more t helper cells
96
Q

Define cell mediated immuity

A

Involved the resistance to disease in resulting from the action of cells. It involves the attack on pathogens which are inside cells.

97
Q

What are the four types of T cells involved in cell mediated immunity

A

Helper
Cytotoxic
Suppressor
Memory

98
Q

Briefly explain the steps in cell mediatd immunity

A
  1. Antigen is displayed on macrophages on cell membrane
  2. Carried to lymph node where T cells are accumlulated
  3. Macrophage release interleukin 1 to attract helper T cells
  4. T cells bind to antigen and amplify the signal
  5. After recoognition helper T cells stimulate other helpter T cels, cytotoxic T cells specfifc to that disease to be activated, done by releasng intereukin 2
  6. Cytotoxic T cells kill body cells that have been infected with the pathogen, secrete proteinis and punch holes in the membrane of the infected cell, killing it.
  7. T supressor cells turn offf the specfic immune system for that disease.
99
Q

Explain the role of T memory cells

A

Ability to recognise foreign antigens so that a rapid response occurs on subsequent invasions.

100
Q

Define humoral immunity

A

Resistance to disease by the production of antibodies that bind to specific antigens

101
Q

What does an antibody look like?

A
  • Four chains
  • Two heavy
  • Two light
  • Two antigen binding sites.
102
Q

Outline Humoral Immunity

A
  1. body is invaded by pathogen (antigen)
  2. Macrophages carry antigen to lymph nodes
  3. Antigen acttivates B lymphcytes
  4. B lymphocytes enlarge and divide into some B memory cells but mostly plasma B cells
  5. Plasma B cells will then secrete antibodies and this will kill the cell.
103
Q

Contrast specific and non-specific immunity

A

non-speciific immunity no memory

specific immunity produces speciliased cells and has mmory produced.

104
Q

What are some plant defence systems against pathogens?

A
  • Dropping leave
  • Thick waxy xuticles
  • Thickened cell walls

Biol (22 decks)

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