🔴 GEOG Food GW1-3 + Diseases Flashcards
What are indicators of a countrys development
Economic: Gross domestic product GDP per capita, employment opportunities
Social: Adult literacy rate, life expectancy
What are indicators of food consumption
- food consumption per capita (kg/capita/yr)
- starchy staples as percentage of all calories
- total daily calorie intake
Why variations exist and persist in food consumption between LDCs and DCs
Difference in affordability, accessibility, stability !!
Economic: disposable income, pricing
Sociocultural: food preferences(organic and fast food) , population growth
Political: stability of supply, food safety
Impacts of too little in food consumption
Health: malnutrition, starvation
Economic: lower productivity, food aid can cause long term debt, diversion of finances to healthcare
Political: social unrest
Social: scavenging
Impacts of too much food consumption
Health: obesity and related illnesses
Economic: lower productivity
Social: food wastage, dieting
Economic: disposable income (Variation in food consumption patters)
Refers to amt after taxes
Ppl in dcs have higher d.income than ldcs. However it has been increasing in both -> more consumption. Also ^ consumption of meats and less of cereals
For every US$1 incr in income in dcs eg. New Zealand/France/USA only 20% spent on food
In ldcs eg democratic republic of Congo, up to 60% on food
Economic: pricing (Variation in food consumption patters)
Ppl in ldcs generally more affected by variations in pricing than dcs, as ppl in dcs have more disposable income.
From 2006-2008 food prices spiked worldwide, creating global food crisis -> many ppl in ldcs cannot afford staples : pushed 100 million more ppl to chronic hunger and poverty. Ldcs - riots and street protests, dcs- ppl just chose less exp options
Socio-cultural: food preferences (Variation in food consumption patters)
Ppls concerns abt health, morals, income and environment influence food choices. Religious reasons as well
Fast food: refers to food prepared easily and quickly. Convenient and affordable. Fast food chains set up in ldcs eg. McDonald’s and Pizza Hut. DCs try to move away as ^ awareness abt harmful on health
Organic food: Food grown without use of artificial inputs like Chem fertilisers. Ppl choose due to perceived health benefits : shift towards organic fruits and veg. 2011 survey USA - 58% prefer organic.
Organic vs non organic 5
Fertilisers : organic eg manure and compost // Chem fertilisers
Crop yield : smaller // larger
Labour: more labour (more workers for weeding as no -cides used) // less labour as controlled by use of chemicals
Cost: more expensive // cheaper
Health: perceived healthier // perceived less healthy
Sociocultural: population growth (Variation in food consumption patters)
Growth rates higher in ldcs than dcs as higher birth rates due to lack of family planning and need for farm labour. Demand for food in ldcs more than dcs. More $ needed, so less affordability.
FAO: world population set to incr from 7 bil in 2012 to 10 bil in 2050
Political: stability of food supply (Variation in food consumption patters)
Stable when safe and nutritious food is available to all ppl at all times. Threats to food supply require Govt to take action.
They do so via incr prod or by incr imports. Food prod: ^tech, ^land allocated for agriculture. Ldcs lower ability to do so than dcs due to lack of tech and finances. Food imports: dcs easier than ldcs as ldcs less able to deal with food price fluctuations.
Ldcs eg Jamaica in the aftermath of a hurricane in 2004 could not import food as too costly. Dcs eg SG may rely on food imports for >90%
Stability affected by:
civil war
In Libya April 2011, UN world food programme reported food stocks being rapidly depleted and not replenished. Food and water shortage while safety concerns prevented going out to find or buy food
natural disasters
Zimbabwe in 2008 shortage after a severe drought. Low rainfall destroyed corn harvest.
Political: food safety (Variation in food consumption patters)
Refers to a system of guidelines that ensure proper handling, prep, transportation and storage of food to prevent diseases. Govt responsible for setting standards and ensuring they are met, also tracking down contaminated foods and removing them.
Tsunami triggered by 2011 earthquake damaged nuclear plants in Fukushima Japan. Radiation contaminated water and farmland. Seafood imports from Japan to sg were restricted to ensure safety.
Health impact: malnutrition
When body does not have sufficient or balanced amt of nutrients to maintain tissues and organ functions. Results in death or long term development problems.
LDCs : Of 148 mil underweight children, 78 mil in South Asia and 36 mil in sub Saharan Africa. Each year, 5 mil children under 5 die in ldcs from it.
DCs : elderly ppl, difficulty digesting. Eating disorders, like anorexia or bulimia, may also develop it.
LDCs more affected. 16% in ldcs r affected. 75% in democratic republic of Congo.
Health impact: Starvation
State of extreme hunger from sever lack of food. Body becomes skeletally thin and organs perma damaged. Eventually death.
More in ldcs cause of more ppl in poverty, lack of resources after natural disasters, unstable political
2010, FAO estimated 98% of ppl facing starvation are in ldcs. More than 60% in Asia.
Economic impact: lower productivity cuz no food
Imbalanced nutrients: get sick more easily, lowers productivity - lower income - inability to work. Children sick - loss of sch - loss of educational opportunities
2012 report by international food policy research institute (IFPRI), studies in ldcs found link betw nutrition and productivity, eg in India, Sri Lanka, Ethiopia
Economic issues: Diversion of finances to healthcare
More ppl sick - increased cost of hc - ldcs higher spending = less on other aspects like education housing transport, slows country’s econ dev and growth
Economic issues: long term debt from financial and food aid
Eg USA contributes about half of all food aid. Most food bought from suppliers and trans on the ships. The Human development report in 2005,2006,2009 found food aid up to 34% more ex than if locally. Ldcs lost em between 5-7 mil usd, incr national debt
Political issues : social unrest
Sit where ppl protest or r violent, usually to Comm unhappiness
Food prices in Mozambique incr by as much as 30% in 2010 due to drought in Russia decr wheat prod, thus incr price. Resulted in violent protests, 400 injured, at least 10 dead
Social impacts: scavenging
Searching thru things ppl throw away to find food to prevent starving
Health risks - may have high lvls of bacteria or chemicals. Could place ppl in dangerous or illegal places
Poorest places of manilla, Philippines. Ppl w/o money for thru rubbish for meals. Large landfield called Smokey mountain, poor families set up makeshift homes nearby, make living by picking thru the rubbish
Health impacts but excess: obesity and related illnesses
Excessive fat accumulation, affects body systems and can lead to high bp, coronary heart disease, diabetes and some cancers. Avg reduces lifespan by 9 years. Other diseases include kidney failure, liver disease.
DCs like USA have a high % adult pop with it compared to Ldcs due to more disposable income and more purchasing power - higher calorie intake. From 1971-2000 obesity rates in USA rose from 14.5% to 30.9%
Econ impact cause too much : lower productivity
More absent due to sick, from work and school - lower income and educational opportunities
Employees of duke university USA those with bmi of over 40 were 2x likely to fall sick or injured during work thus higher compensation claims paid by the uni
Social impact: food wastage
DCs with excess may waste food. Food consumers and producers throw away edible food.
Amt of food wasted per capita is 95-115 kg per capita in dcs and 6-12 kg/capita in ldcs. Food waste is add waste for landfills. Resources used to prod are wasted too.
Social impact: dieting
Ppl may become overweight and thus go on a diet, which is the practice of regulating food consumed and exercise to maintain ideal body weight.
Health benefits and benefits econ: 2012, weight loss industry valued at 20bil usd
Inappropriate dieting may lead to depression and illnesses like iron deficiency anaemia
Calculating productivity of farmland
Ratio of output per unit area of land to input per unit area of land
(Amt of food produced vs amt of resources used)
physical factors affecting food prod
- climate (temp, rain)
- soil and drainage
- relief (slopes/altitude)
physical factor food prod: climate 2
High rainfall, High temperature
More food crops,
Crops that need warmer climates.
Soya bean and tomato need warmer temperatures
Cooler temperatures
Not as conducive for food production
Good for crops that need cooler temps
Strawberries in Cameron highlands
physical factor food prod: Soil and Drainage 2
Floodplains with fertile soils
More food crops as soil has more nutrients to support plant growth
Highly fertile soils, a flat terrain and a large water supply results in a very high production of rice in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam
Soils with different ability to retain or drain off water
Type of crop produced and overall yield depends on suitability of the soil
Oats require more sandy soil that are well-drained.
Rice require soil with more clay and which retain large amount of water.
physical factor food prod: relief
Steep slopes / Altitude
Generally more difficult to grow and thus less food production. Terracing might be necessary.
High altitudes allow crops which require cooler temperatures to grow
On steep slopes, top soil may be washed away more easily and thus the soil may be less fertile, affecting productivity of the area.
At Cameron Highlands, steep slopes allow for the growing of tea as water can slowly drain off from the slope.
High altitudes also allow crops which require cooler temperatures such as strawberries to grow.
economic factors 3
- purpose of farming
- demand and capital
- agribusiness
economic factor food prod: purpose of farming (subsistence and commercial)
Subsistence farming
prod of crops to feed farmer and fam
Land: Small, 1-3 hectares
Labour: Family of farmer
Capital: Simple farming tools, seeds from previous harvests
Low crop yield, due to small land area, simple tools, and seeds from previous harvests.
TA: lower food production as only need to produce for own and family’s consumption.
Widely practiced in Sub-Saharan Africa. Crops grown usually include corn, cassava
Commercial farming
Large scale intended for sale rather than farmer needs
Land: Large, 30-thousands of hectares
Labour: Hired
Capital: Machinery eg tractors and combine harvesters
High crop yield, due to large land area, machinery
Produced as cash crops
TA: Large scale farming with high food production fo sale to earn revenue.
Widely practiced in Europe, North and South America, Australia and Asia
economic factor food prod: demand and capital
Peoples willingness and ability to obtain a particular food crop or product, High demand of food crop and capital to meet demand
High demand - people willing to pay more - farmers motivated to increase supply - tech developed for it reduces cost - farmers further motivated : increased intensity leads to higher production
TA: increased demand leads to prices going up. Farmers thus have increased motivation to increase pdt, and pdt increases. Higher capital also allows for greater investment to increase food production.
As China’s wealth increased, there was an increased demand for meat and this led to the need to import corn for food for livestock.
economic factor food prod: agribusiness
business or industry involved in food production, refers to large scale farming and related businesses eg. Commercial farming, processing, packaging, distributing and retailing
Invest in research and dev of crops
Greater crop yields
Able to withstand impact of changes to environment on crops eg. pest damage and flooding compared to small farmers. Investment in food production -> greater crop yields
TA: agribusiness controls all aspects from farm to salad, and needs to produce a lot to earn revenue. Food production is very high. Lower cost of production - lower cost of product - competitors (smaller businesses) suffer
Dole has worldwide operations from farming, processing to distribution and port facilities.
political factors for food production 3
- agricaultural policies
- food policies
- ASEAN
political factor food prod: agricultural polices
Agricultural policies can encourage or negatively affect production
Agricultural policies include farmer development and education and pricing policies. It can lead to higher or lower production.
In India, the Punjab Agriculture Department started educating wheat farmers about the best available seed varieties, pesticide treatment and irrigation methods in 2012 to ensure greater productivity from its farmland.
political factor food prod: food policies
Food stockpiling, diversification of sources, direct
contracts between local companies and famers.
Increase stability and security of food. Not so much effect on food production.
Singapore NTUC Fairprice Co
operative Ltd purchases vegetables through contracts with Indonesian farmers.
Singapore purchases vegetables from Malaysia, China and USA.
political factor food prod: ASEAN
Collaboration between ASEAN countries
Increase stability of food through agreements between ASEAN countries. ASEAN countries also have agreements to share technological knowledge to help increase production.
ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve (APTERR) Agreement
tech advances food prod factors 4
- high yielding varieties
- irrigation
- mechanisation
- fertilisers and pesticides
tech advances food prod: high yielding varieties HYVs
Refer to hybrid varieties of a particular crop that have been developed through cross breeding of selected varieties that exhibit favourable characteristics.
The increased resistance to pests and shorter growing seasons lead to a higher production in a set amount of time. However, these need more water and nutrients, thus may be more costly.
The ‘Wonder Rice’ has a growing season of 100 days compared to the growth duration of 120 days for the non-HYVs.
tech advances food prod: irrigation
A method of supplying water to the land other than by natural means.
By supplying water to areas that used to be too dry for farming, it increases the amount of land suitable for farming. (arable land) consistent supply of water. More land for farming leads to higher crop yields and higher production.
The Great Man-made River in Libya is one of the most extensive irrigation projects in the world and has made it possible to grow crops in the Sahara Desert.
tech advances food prod: Mechanisation
Use of machinery to perform tasks that would otherwise be done manually.
Speeds up processes involved in preparing the land, such as tending to crops and harvesting. Faster speed leads to higher production.
Up until recently, the small oily fruit was picked by hand in a painstaking process by many workers. Now, farmers use an olive harvesting machine which shakes the tree, releasing the olives, and collecting them in one centralized location.
tech advances food prod: fertilisers and pesticides
Fertilisers:
Substances added to the soil to provide nutrients for healthy plant growth.
Pesticides: Chemical substances used to kill insects and small animals that destroy crops.
Nutrients in soil would be depleted eventually, especially after continuous use of farmland. Small amt of nutrients - low yield. Fertilisers - bring nutrients back - higher yield.
Less damage to crops lead to more suitable crops leads to higher production. Herbicides kill weed and other undesirable plants that compete with crops for resources.
The use of a pesticide called
malathion was widely used in the 1980s to address a fruit fly problem in fruit orchards in California, USA.
effects of intensification: irrigation 2
- Waterlogging : soil is oversaturated with water. Irrigation causes fields to be flooded, soil filled with water, roots unable to get nutrients, plants can “drown”, reduce prod
- Salinisation :Occurs when water added to soil during irrigation evaporates directly from moist soil, salt left behind. Also when irrigation no proper drainage of excess water. Groundwater may reach upper soil layers bringing up dissolved salts. Saline soils too High conc for plants (pg137)
Seawater used for irrigation, when dries up it leaves salts, soil to salty and unsuitable, reduce prod
effects of intensification: chemical use
- Contamination of groundwater : pesticides and fertilisers seep into groundwater thru the process of percolation (water going downwards thru soil), gw is contaminated and unsuitable for agriculture or drinking, reduce productivity, ppl fall sick
- Water pollution : Chemicals washed into water bodies during surface runoff, pollutes the water, water borne diseases when ppl consume it and death of aquatic plants and animals, affecting ecosystem, farmers affected as less fish to catch
- eutrophication: The presence of excess nutrients in water : Leads to algae blooms which deplete oxygen in water and block sunlight, death of aquatic plants and animals, decomposition leads to further oxygen depletion
measures against eutrophication 2
- measures to manage runoff: control measures aimed at preventing nutrients from reaching water bodies (less effect to treat water after it occurs)
- raising awareness thru public awareness campaigns. managing eutrophication realted to monitoring pollution, req cooperation between govt, orgs, and comm
causes of food shortage: physical 3
- global warming
- extreme weather events
- pests eg wild rabbits and insects
food shortage physical factor: global warming
weather is getting too hot, crops cannot grow well , supply cannot meet demand, food shortage
limits supply
Food production decreased by up to 50% in Brazil, India, Pakistan, Turkey, parts of the USA, most of Southeast Asia and most of Australia.
Glaciers in the Himalayas expected to cause food shortage in the coming decades.
food shortage physical factor: Extreme weather
events like hurricanes and droughts
Crops destroyed during tropical cyclones and floods, supply cannot meet demand, food shortage
limits supply
Cyclone Yasi caused sugar prices to surge as a third of Queensland’s crop lay in the direct path of the cyclone, causing massive damage.
food shortage physical factor: pests eg wild rabbits and insects
Destroy crops by eating them or spreading diseases, productivity drops, supply cannot meet demand, food shortage
limits supply
Caterpillar invasion in Liberia africa 2009. Tens of millions of catapillars invaded the country, devouring all the plants and food in their path. About 46 villages in northern liberia were affected.
causes of food shortage political factors 2
- civil strife
- poor governance
food shortage political factor: civil strife
Fighting cause people to forgo farms; farms destroyed, food prod drops, supply cannot meet demand, food shortage
limit supply. reduced accessibility
The Syrian village of Houla where there was a massacre of over 100 people in May 2012, faced critical food shortage, as there was no harvesting and many cattles had been lost.
food shortage political factor: poor governance
Gov does not allocate enough resources to infrastructure and food prod/imports, supply cannot meet demand, food shortage
limit supply, reduced accessibility
Madhya Pradesh
In 2010, 40,000 villagers were deprived of land for farming due to the development of mining, a steel plant and port. Villagers lost the means to produce their own food and were left with extremely limited income to buy food
casues of food shortage: econ factors 3
- Rising demand for meat and dairy products from emerging economies like China and India
- The soaring cost of fertilisers and Transport
- Conversion of farmland to industrial crop production to produce biofuel
food shortage econ: Rising demand for meat and dairy products from emerging economies like China and India
more disposable income, can afford more food, esp meat, incr demand, supply cannot meet demand, food shortage
More resources go towards rearing animals, less food for consumption, s
food shortage econ: The soaring cost of fertilisers and Transport
Farmers cannot afford, shut down of farms, supply decrease, demand more than supply, food shortage
Farmers pass cost to consumers, consumers cannot afford, food shortage
limit supply, reduced accessibilty
Kazakhstan
A major producer of wheat.
In March 2011, world crude oil prices increased by 10.3%. Thus, had to increase the price of wheat exported to neighbouring countries (e.g. Tajikistan) due to the rise in fuel cost.
food shortage econ: Conversion of farmland to industrial crop production to produce biofuel
Increased use of crops as biofuel as its more lucrative, less crops left for consumption , supply cannot meet demand, food shortage
limit supply, incr costs
Biofuel production in the USA
About 25% of all food crops grown in the USA become fuel for vehicles instead of food.
Amount would have been enough to feed 330 million people for one year.
causes of food shortage: social factors 3
- lack of accessibility
- inadequate logistics of food distribution and storage
- Rapid population Growth
food shortage social: lack of accessibility
+
food shortage social: inadequate logistics of food distribution and storage
(they have the same example)
Poor transport network - unable to transport food - less accessible
less accessible, incr cost (delivery)
Food can’t be distributed to many places, poor access to food, food shortage. Lack of proper storage, food gets spoiled easily, supply limited, supply can’t meet demand, food shortage : food cannot reach ppl
less accesible, incr cost
Timor-Leste
One-third of the population experiences food shortages in between harvests. Chronic food shortage is worsened by:
•Lack of storage facilities
•Difficulty of accessing numerous remote communities
food shortage social: Rapid population Growth
increased demand, supply cannot increase fast enough to meet demand, food shortage
incr demand
By 2025, 75% of Sub-Saharan Africans have to rely on food aid.
DEXAL solving food shortage: storage
use of refridgerated warehouse storage and delivery trucks - food fresh longer; LDCs: silos - airtight for storing crops
silos in Timor-Leste, FAO reduce lloss of crops to pests by 20%
can be distributed to further away from prod area - more variety available, more accessible
refridgeation on large scale very expensive, poor farmers cannot afford silos
DEXAL solving food shortage: farming tech (green revolution)
use of HYV, irrigation tech, chem ferts and pesticides and marchinery
HYV- prod of rice and wheat in deveploping countries incr 75% between 1965 and 1980
incr crop yield, enabled food to be grown in places previously unsuitable
many farming tech too expensive for farmers esp in LDCs, mismanagement may result in envio problems
DEXAL solving food shortage: biotech (GM food)
modifying living orgs, known as genetic modification. GM food is food from crops with modified genetic makeup
drought resistant corn, grown on Western Great Plains of USA, where max rainfall is abt 600mm
GM have higher yield - higher income, more food prod, less dependent on imports. GM more resistant to extreme waether conditions
Gm mostly in large scale commercial farms due to high costs to purchase seeds, thus LDC farmers cannot afford
small prod as small demand due to wary consumers concerned abt health risks
DEXAL solving food shortage: multiple cropping, crop rotation
growing two or more crops on single piece of land. growing crops in specific order
Leguminous crops (seeds in pods eg. Soya bean) have roots with bacteria that produce nitrogen compounds, when die becomes fertilisers for other (planted tgt with non)
Less soil erosion and prevents decrease in soil fertility.
Dependence on singular crop is avoided via both so variability in prices, market, climate, pests and diseases do not have drastic effects on local econs
more supply, lower cost as more crops can grow
Difficulty to use machines as diff crops need diff machines, affect productivity
DAL solving food shortage: water and soil conservation
When no till farming is practised, without removing weeds and no digging to plant, allows plant materials from previous growing season kept on surface, maintains soil nutrients from decomp
tilling removes plant mats decr org mats
Soil protected from erosion or deterioration, fertile for longer, higher yield
Lack of knowledge by farmers, reducing effectiveness
DEXAL solving food shortage: lease of farmland to other countries
countries with insufficient land for farming may lease land from others
2008, South korea 99y lease on 3.2 mil acres of farmland in Madagascar
leasing out land gen income, can used to help local farmers improve farming methods - incr food prod
leasing could reduce local supply eg etheopia farmland leased to generate income - less land, food shortage
DAL solving food shortage: support local farmers
consumers can buy locally prod food, diversifies sources of food supply in country - incr food security
keeps local farmers in business - ensures demand, maintain share of food market (comp with big agribussinesses. more affordable due to lower prices
Limited government funding available
DEXAL solving food shortage: population control
in many LDCs food prod growth slower than pop growth - concern in countries w widespread hunger and malnutrition
Due to high pop growth in phillipines, staples such as fish not enough to meet deamnd, some villages community-based fam planning programes introed to provide contraceptives
educate ppl on family planning, access to repro health facilities - population control ,enough supply
Difficult to implement especially in rural areas
DEXAL solving food shortage: food programmes and aid by int agencies
responding to emergencies - provision of emergency food and assistance during wars and natural disasters
food delivered to 99.5% of targeted recipients during 2011 sudan food crisis by United nations world food programme UNWFP)
food price inflated during such emergencies - more costly for the org
extent of help limited by funding from donors
DEXAL solving food shortage: agricultural policies by govts
Sinapore, high-tech farming (1970s-present)
agrotechnology parks that house hightech farms, with neccessary infrastructure eg computers
local farms prod up to 8% of veg, 8% of fish, 26% on egg - reduce reliance on imports
incr supply, local-accessible
High cost of high tech farming and lack of land in sg, limit prod - may result in more ex for consumers
Govt inability to implement the policies, limit effectiveness
Cash crops may be grown instead of food crops, limiting food supply
Health indicators for DCs and LDCs
- infant mortality rate : affected by sol
- life expectancy
- doctor patient ratio
- bed patient ratio
health variation: diet
DC
Lots of meat, veg, fat; overall high consumption = obesity
LDC
Staple food eg rice; overall low consumption = malnutrition
health variation: lifestyle choices
healthy lifestyle involves phys activity, balanced diet = less risk of diesases
DC
Low levels of physical activity: WHO 2012 study, physical inactivity responsible for 6% all global deaths- more significant in DCs: hired help, use of tech
= obesity, degenerative diseases
LDC
High levels of physical activity, smoking (fewer regulations, less education, cheaper)
WHO 2012 study, 80% of the 1 billion smokers globally are from LDCs
=
Smoking: cancers such as lung stomach and mouth
Excessive drinking: hbp, liver failure
health variation: education
Educated: more informed on how to lead healthy lifestyles. Generally higher incomes- better access
more informed on nutrition and hc - lower IMR, able to care for children better
DC
Children are more likely to complete their education as edu is often compulsory: more resources to invest in edu
LDC
Children in poverty more likely to drop out as family cannot afford it and often have to work from young age to supplement household income
Indian council of med research; 1981-2005, IMR for children of mothers without formal schooling consistently higher than with education.
11y of formal edu: 60% less likely to die in the first month
health variation: income
LDCs health problems usually due to poverty - limits purchasing power to afford healthcare. More health risks from poor housing and insuffiecient nutrition, less access to vaccination
DC
DCs in east asia, 7.2% live in extreme poverty
LDC
The World Bank uses the official global poverty lines as the standard ot measure poverty: currently US$1.90
Sun-saharan africa 42.7% of population
health variation: Investment in healthcare and access to health services
Reources devoted by govts businesses or indivs towards addressing health and medical needs of a population. Eg. money govt uses to build and maintain hospitals - train and hire staff, equipment
DC
Greater investment and access to hc - greater govt and private sector resources
LDC
Less accessible as ppl in rural areas may have to travel long distances to the nearest hospitals
May not have adequate hc infrastructure - lack of resources or inappropriate use of funds : hc cost burden onto patients
health variation: Living conditions
Set of characteristics including housing living spaces and access to basic services
Good:
- Permanent durable housing
- sufficient living space: not more than 3 in a room
- easy access to safe water at affordable price
- access to adequate sanitation (toilet)
DC
Solid structures, keep out animals and insects (disease) supplied with clean water, electricity, sanitation
LDC
Slums characterised by poorly secured structures, poor ventilation and overcrowding
health variation: Access to safe
drinking water
- water source less than 1km from area of use
- possible to obtain reliably at least 20l for each member of a household per day
DC
99% have access (2010)
LDC
Can lead to spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera. Improperly stored water (contatiners uncovered) can breed mosquitoes
86% have access (2010)
health variation: proper sanitation
Safe storage treatment and disposal of waste, having toilets, sewage pipes, and treatment plants
Human waste - harmful microorganisms that cause diseases
DC
2010 95% have access
LDC
2010 58% have access WHO progress on Drinking water and sanitation
infectious diseases
Diseases that are communicable or contagious
Transmitted by microorganism such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi
Malaria, HIV/AIDS, diarrhoeal diseases
more common in LDCs
degenerative diseases
Diseases where affected tissues or organs deteriorate over time
Due to lifestyle choices, eating habits, bodily wear and tear or genetic causes
Coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer, Alzheimer’s disease. cancer - 7.6 million deaths worldwide, 13% of total in 2008
more common in DCs
epidemic
When an infectious disease spreads rapidly to many people within short periods of time
Number of new cases in a given period (incidence rate) is greater than what is expected
Total number of existing cases of a disease in a particular population is high
Cholera epidemic as a result of the earthquake in Haiti, 2010. Earthquake damaged the country’s water supply and sanitation infrastructure. This caused the water supply to be contaminated by waste materials.
pandemic
When an infectious disease spreads over a large area (across multiple countries or the whole world)
SARS in 2003.
It was first reported in Asia but quickly spread to other countries in North America and Europe. In total, it infected 8,422 people worldwide and claimed 914 lives.
spread of malaria
Malaria is mainly spread through expansion diffusion which occurs when an infectious disease is spread outwards from its source.
spread of HIV/AIDS
- through blood or bodily fluids.
expansion and relocation diffusion: - Relocation diffusion is the introduction of a disease to a location outside its current geographic range.
- The disease became highly concentrated in new areas where expansion diffusion could occur.
social factors, spread of malaria: lack of proper sanitation
D
waste water not disposed properly –> stagnant pools of water form. replenished when rain, favourable breeding ground for mosquitoes. close to settlements –> incr chance of malaria
econ factors, spread of malaria: limited provision of and access to healthcare DEXA
shortage of hc and doctors in rural areas + cost of malaria treatment.
United Nations Development Programme UNDP : critical shortage of docs in india : 6 docs per 10k ppl, only 4% of indias Gross Domestic Product GDP spent on hc
ppl may delay treatment as med centres may be far from their homes. longer infected –> incr chance of spread. effective meds too ex, choose cheaper less effective treatment/ no treatment
enviro factors, spread of malaria: overcrowded living conditions DEXA
large number of ppl live very close together in a small area. ppl tend to share spaces and items, interact more often and more closely –> faster disease spread
housing for refugees and migrant workers oft overcrowded,, many ppl share 1 room + unhygenic conditions. may not have proper foors and windows to keep out Anopheles mosquitoes (active at night). larger no of ppl cloes to mosquitoes
enviro factors, spread of malaria: poor drainage and stagnant water
favuorable for breeding. places where low awareness of malaria and no precaution to remove stagnant pools of water –> mosq breed quickly
state of Rajasthan india, water from 8k km of canals in the Great Indian Thar Desert leaks into many plcaes –> created swamps (breeding grounds) regular outbreaks of malaria in desert areas of india ince 1980s
enviro factors, spread of malaria: effect of climate
temp, rainfall, relative humidity affect mosquitoes. monsoons - create favuorable conditions for breeding (large amts of rainfall) –> large pools of water (block storm drains from accumuklation of debris
post monsoon period where flooded areas dry up leaving stagnant pools. epidemic of malaria : Pakistan 2006 and 2009
how does climate affect mosquitoes: temperature (malaria)
- 22-30 C incr lifespan of female mosquitoes
- higher temps - shorter dev time of parasites in mosquito host: active and infectious sooner
- aquatic lifecycle of mosquitoes reduced from 20 days to 7 when temp incr
how does climate affect mosquitoes: rainfall (malaria)
- habitats: stagnant pools of water
- times of year w insuficient rainfall, habitats not created
- habitats may be removed when stagnant water washed away by high rainfall
how does climate affect mosquitoes: relative humidity (malaria)
- 50-60% req for survival and activity of mosq
- higher humidity = higher lifespan
impacts of malaria: social: death rate EX
2010, WHO estimate of 216 mil cases worldwide, est 537000-907000 ppl died, 2000-2009
LDCs more prevalent: Democratic republic of congo and nigeria: over 40% total deaths in 2010
impacts of malaria: social: infant mortality rate EX
every 1000 children born alive in Nigeria, 140 die from malaria within a year from birth.
infected mother to unborn child transmission: est 7500-200000 infants die within first year from low birth weight due to malaria during pregnancy
impacts of malaria: economic: burden of malaria on households
econ burden - incr medical expenses
Republic of Ghana in West Africa: economic burden up to 34% of a households income
medication, transport, days lost from work/school, funeral cost = less $ on other needs
impacts of malaria: economic: cost of healthcare (country)
countries set aside funds for provision of hc to adress the disease
acc to WHO malaria can account for as much as 40% of public health spending in some countries
used for building maintenance, investment in hospitals and clinics, purchase of medicine and insecticide treated nets
less $ on other aspects of country
impacts of malaria: economic: loss of productivity
may not be able to work due to poor health - loss of productivity (rate at which goods/services are prod)
WHO: econ growth in Africa (area endemic to malaria) has slowed by up to 1.3% each year
slower econ growth
transmission of HIV/AIDs
- sexual contact: exchange of bodily fluids
- sharing of infected needles
- pregnant mother to baby
- blood transfusion (africa est 250-500 a day)
expansion vs relocation diffusion
sim 2 and diffs 3
sim
- have place of origin
- are the spread of diesase across space
diff
- spread outward from source // intro to location outside of g. range
- contact betw ppl, strongly affected by dist // leaps great dists and intervening populations
- more liekly when ppl have contact/interact // often when community migrates from one location to another
spread of hiv/aids: social: social stigma
extreme disapproval associated with HIV/AIDS
patients may face forms of discrimination eg. refusal of access to hc facilities, rejection by fam or comm, expelled from sch, denial of public housing
prejudice against ppl with it and ignorance on how its transmitted: early intervention hindered in both dcs and ldcs in the 1980s
spread of hiv/aids: social: education
ppl unaware of how its transmitted (lack of edu) ppl do not know how to prot themselves and avoid infection: more vulnerable
there are also cultural practices to keep girls aabt knowing abt sex and sexuality until marriage
sex is a very private subject in Nigeria and discussion oft seen as inappropriate : sexuality awareness education not conducted in schools
spread of hiv/aids: social: lifestyle choices
certain lifestyle choices incr ones risk of infection eg. drug injection/ sharing needles, refusal to wear condoms
durg abuse can put person at risk of infection
drug and alcohol intoxication affect judegement -> unasfe sexual practices : put at risk
spread of hiv/aids: social: lapses in medical practices
mistakes, corruption and negligence in med practices
WHO est 5-10% HIV transmitted via blood transfusion tainted with hiv/aids : countries where no effective blood screening
130k patients potentially exposed to hiv between 2001 and 2011 in USA scc US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) : contaminated syringes and containers used in transfusions
spread of hiv/aids: economic: vice trades
vice trades: business activities such as involvement in illegal drugs or commercial sex work
china: women who move from villages to cities in search of work: limited edu and job training : jobs with low pay and no security -> resort to comm sex work due to lack of options : vulnerable
spread of hiv/aids: economic: mobility
movement of ppl from on place to another eg for work.. affected by job - miner, truck driver tend to more mobile: leave families behind + foreign place: feel excluded - get involved in risk taking behaviours/ put themselves at risk
dev of modern transport + airline: across the globe
tourists : take risks they wouldnt take at home eg drink more, unprot sex
2010, queensland australia: highest incidence of HIV/AIDS with 206 ppl diagnosed - some tourists infected when they travelled to Paupa New Guinea, nearby country w high prevalance of it
impact of hiv/aids: social: life expectancy and infant mortality rate
incr death, lowers life expectancy, pop size, and pop growth. large numbers usually in LDCs eg Kenya
in affected countries, life exp almost 6 years lower than without the disease. By 2025 expected to be at 10.8 - UNAIDS
Uganda- 1950-1974 LE at 39-51 years; by 1996 reduced to 46 years
impact of hiv/aids: social: orphan crisis
large numbers of children lose parents to hiv/aids. worldwide: 17 million. 87% live in sub-saharan african countries eg. uganda, nigeria
cared for by extended fam, orphanages built by NGOs. In kenya, half a million do not have support from adults : vulnerable to forced labour, forced into sex industry, recruited as child soldiers
carers of orphans - deeper poverty, med costs and living expenses incurred caring for the orphans.
orphans stigmatised by society, assumed to be hiv/aids positive. limits childs access to basic neccessities, more likely to suffer from malnutrition and illnesses –> lower SOL
impact of hiv/aids: economic: cost of healthcare
meds to treat HIV/AIDS are antiretroviral drugs -> keept it from progressing, can stop complications for years. taken daily for patients life
antiretroviral drugs expensive in both DCs and LDCs:
SG: from us160 to us1200 per month. Some LDCs, us69 to us900 per year. where free/subsidised, cost borne by govt or NGOs
/
South africa govt spent us1.2 billion in 2010 in hc expenditure for hiv/aids patients - acc 2012 country progress report for UNAIDS
govt allocate limited resources to care for patients esp for advanced stages. $ and resources diverted that couldve been used for other aspects by govt
impact of hiv/aids: economic: loss of productivity, slower econ growth
shortage of skilled labour in workforce : high death rates
illnesses: absent from work for long periods, reduced productivity
lack of funds: less effective edu system -> lower skilled workforce
Uganda - slowed by 1.2% each year due to hiv/aids - 2008 study by Ugandas Ministry of Finance. if countinues, reduced by up to 39% by 2025
lower econ growth. businesses less likely to invest (not enough infra, not enough skilled workers, poor health) deters foreign investment
reasons for reemergence of malaria 4+ex
- resistance to anti malarial drugs incr: incomplete/counterfiet doses given, surviving malaria parasites build resistance : migrant workers from india had resistant malaria parasites while in thailand, returned to india, existing treatment became ineffective
- climate change: higher temps, more favourable breeding sites at higher altitudes : changed annual temps in the Central Highlands region of Kenya - malaria at higher altitudes, additional 4mil ppl at risk
- air travel: disease-causing organisms can be transported to new areas. in 1995, malaria reported in southern france, areas not endemic, ppl who did not travel or get blood transfusions
- insecticide-resistant mosquitoes: WHO, resistanec has been de
reasons for reemergence of malaria 4+ex
- resistance to anti malarial drugs incr: incomplete/counterfiet doses given, surviving malaria parasites build resistance : migrant workers from india had resistant malaria parasites while in thailand, returned to india, existing treatment became ineffective
- climate change: higher temps, more favourable breeding sites at higher altitudes : changed annual temps in the Central Highlands region of Kenya - malaria at higher altitudes, additional 4mil ppl at risk
- air travel: disease-causing organisms can be transported to new areas. in 1995, malaria reported in southern france, areas not endemic, ppl who did not travel or get blood transfusions
- insecticide-resistant mosquitoes: WHO, resistance has been detected in 64 countries. if worsens, puts 120k children under 5y in africa at risk
limitations of healthcare: challenges in managing spread of malaria, socio-econ
Malaria parasites can dev resistance to anti-malarial drugs (cause: incomplete treatment of infected person)
2009, resistance to anti-malarial drugs observed along Thai-Cambodian border
population movement due to efficient transport and communications: challenges in managing spread of malaria, socio-econ
Pop. movement = movement of ppl across borders -> transmits to new places
Border control = controlling flow of ppl, animals and goods cross borders
Eg. Greater Mekong subregion in SEA : necessary to control spread of drug resistant malaria. Spread- uncontrolled migration and lack of coordination
Travel advisories = official notices informing travellers of risks, issued by govt. L- cannot reach everyone
effects of climate change: challenges in managing spread of malaria, enviro
Incr temps - breed and mature faster
rainfall - pools of stagnant water (breeding sites)
effects of monsoons: challenges in managing spread of malaria, enviro
Bring high rainfall during wet season
Urban areas of India: heavy rains = long lasting pools of stagnant water. Breed -> mature, spread to urban pop
Difficulties in HIV detection (challenges in managing hiv spread, socio economic)
No visible signs of disease. Infected may continue as usual, infecting others. Ppl w limited access to hc -> difficulty obtaining testing
WHO 2004-2009 survey: Congo, only 35.2% of women with hiv knew they had it before the test, the rest unaware
Lifestyle choices (challenges in managing hiv spread, socio economic)
Eg being sexually active at a young age, having many sexual partners, using injection drugs
Culture often influences lifestyle choices. Traditions, values and beliefs may cause ppl to cont with risk taking behaviour
Zambia and Kenya- some tribes still practise polygamy (having more than one wife) testing before marriage not practiced
Social stigma leading to non-reporting of disease (challenges in managing hiv spread, socio economic)
Ppl stay away from being tested and receiving treatment. May infect their partners because remain silent about it. Often causes ppl not to stay on track with antiretroviral therapy
Health professionals may also discriminate, believing treatment a waste
Stigma remains a challenge throughout the world even in DCs such as USA.
2008 report by UNAIDS est 28% Americans prefer not to work closely w a woman infected w it
High cost of antiretroviral therapy (challenges in managing hiv spread, socio economic)
Treatment can control disease, improve qol, reduce transmission risk
Treatment still costly and unaffordable to many. May become cheaper but remain unaffordable due to other costs eg transport
Botswana - 25% adult pop have HIV/AIDS, major reason ppl stop visiting and taking meds: long wait time at clinics (4-12h)
Population movement across borders and along highways for work (challenges in managing hiv spread, socio economic)
Some pops higher mobility eg truck drivers: place to place, long time away from fam - prone to risk taking behaviour Poot seeking company of commercial sex workers
The Kinshasa Highway (links Uganda and Kenya) known as AIDS highway- high prevalence of HIV/AIDS among sex workers along the road
prevent spread: what can they do? INDIVIDUALS
(D) What can they do
Awareness of what these diseases are and conditions that contribute to their spread.
Exercise social responsibility: constantly aware of unsanitary conditions. Indivs can take measures against
Refraining from participating in risk taking behaviours, obtaining up to date and timely vaccination, following travel advisories
(Ex) Specific examples with details
Being aware about hand foot mouth disease outbreaks in a community could make indivs more mindful about hygiene. May become more aware of ways disease transmitted
A spray, protective clothing, insecticide treated nets can be used to reduce contact w mosquitoes —> potential breeding sites identified and removed
(A) Strengths / how the strategies can help overcome
the spread of infectious diseases
(L) Limitations in managing the spread of infectious diseases
prevent spread: what can they do? COMMUNITIES
(D) What can they do
Communities play impt role as strategies need to be implemented to address issues specific to the community or area. Comms can: intro potential control strats, deciding when where and who for strats, engaging health workers to train and monitor comm. ppl more receptive to comm
(Ex) Specific examples with details
Sierra Leone - (CLTS) community led total sanitation. Methods to rapidly incr sustainable sustainable coverage nationwide. Remove practice of open defecation thru raising awareness. Go house to house digging toilets for households
(A) Strengths / how the strategies can help overcome the spread of infectious diseases
Implementation of CLTs extended to NGO and district health management teams. As of June 2009, 754 comms have been involved. Improvement in sanitation —> decr incidences of diarrhoea
(L) Limitations in managing the spread of infectious diseases
CLTS works best in rural areas when pop density is low, less successful in urban —> ongoing migration and lack of space for toilets
GOVT prevent spread PRECAUTIONARY
Thailand- thermal fogging. Involves distribution of insecticides by using fog prod by heat.
malaria control programme, therms fogging applied during outbreaks and in uncontrolled transmission areas. Applied once a week for 4 consecutive weeks
kills adult mosquitoes outdoors
expensive, must be regular basis to be effective
Thick fog = reduced visibility, traffic hazard
GOVT prevent spread MITIGATION
Singapore- control measures during SARS 2003
detecting and isolating infected in dedicated hospital, dedicated private ambulance. Closely monitored health of staff, restricting visitors. Potential patients home quarantined by law.
prompt Govt intervention following early detection
WHO medical officials praised SGs handling and prompt and open reporting of cases. Encouraged other countries to learn from sgs handling of outbreak. Said stringent measures taken contained spread
some patients had symptoms not commonly associated with SARS. Some did not show signs until much later. —> infected ppl they came in contact with —> detection difficult, harder to contain
what can INTERNATIONAL ORGS do tot prevent spread
(D) What can they do
Great influence, wide variety of groups operating across countries, incl WHO, the World Bank, UNAIDS and other NGOs
(Ex) Specific examples with details
WHO: Directly observed treatment, short-course (DOTS) 1993-2011 for tuberculosis. Five components:
Political commitment - incr and sustained funding
Case detection thru quality assured biological science
Standardised treatment with supervision and patient support
An effective drug supply and management system
Monitoring, evaluation and impact measurement system
(A) Strengths / how the strategies can help overcome the spread of infectious diseases
Total number of countries implementing incr steadily since 1995, approaching limit at 183 in 2004. Global treatment success rate high since 1994, 77% successfully treated. Remained above 80% since 1998.
(L) Limitations in managing the spread of infectious diseases
Implementation of DOTS programmes in 1990s, targets not met by 2000, target year deferred to 2005. Three main obstacles : lack of laboratory skills and infra to set up good labs, lack of funding, lack of qualified staff. Factors affecting likelihood of treatment success: severity of disease, drug resistance, malnutrition, support to patient to ensure they complete treatment.
NGOs how help prevent spread
D: non profit group organised on a local, national or international level. Perform variety of services and humanitarian functions.
Ex: International HIV/AIDS Alliance (IHAA): alliance of nationally based, independent, civil society orgs. Responses to HIV epidemic: incr access to HIV/health programmes; advocating for HIV, health and human rights.
A: indiv countries take up more ownership in implementation. Measurable goals for the whole alliance- orgs that work with it use this strat plus their own national plans to shape future Strats
L: success depends on will of gifts to better target their resources and work with civil society in their national HIV responses. Not all countries have the funds- depends on goodwill of other countries / int orgs to provide funds
