4E bio markers report MYE Flashcards
movement of substances answering technique
- direction of movement from lower to higher/ vice versa
2. process + conditions (energy/ppm)
effect of extreme ph on enzymes
denatures in both high and low
weakens hydrogen bonds in enzymes, changing 3d structure
nature of enzymes
highly specific, active site only complementary to 1 substrate = catalyses only 1 reaction.
rate of reaction (enzymes)
TALK ABOUT FREQUENCY OF EFFECTIVE COLLISIONS
polypeptides and proteins
Polypeptides = simple molecule + long-straight chains of amino acids, Proteins = complex molecule + long condensed chains of polypeptides folded into a 3D structure
breakdown of proteins
bestie no
Fatty acids and glycerol
formed via CHEMICAL digestion, not by bile ( emulsification of fat)
breakdown of starch
Starch broken down into maltose and then into glucose
nutrients, where thye are found and where they are digested
bitch idk
palisade mesophyll
Palisade mesophyll is vertically upright to allow more sunlight to DIRECTLY pass through the whole cell + it has the highest concentration of chloroplasts
epidermal layer plants
waxy cuticle that’s waterproof = reduce water loss
light stage photosynthesis
photolysis of water into O2 (given off) + H atom
dark stage photosynthesis
enzyme controlled reaction to form glucose from CO2 + H from light stage
stomata
controls gaseous exchange, day = CO2 in + H20 and O2 out, night = close to reduce loss of water vapour
process of photosynthesis yassified
Photosynthesis uses light energy in the presence of chlorophyll, energy used in photolysis to break bonds in H2O, H+ ions reduce CO2 to form glucose, energy in H ions are converted to chemical energy in the glucose molecules
xylem
lignin to strengthen walls
has no protoplasm + CROSS WALLS = provide continuous empty lumen that reduces resistance to conduct water more easily (hollow tube)
phloem
has little degenerate cytoplasm + sieve plates (what they do i do not know)
mesophyll waters trip out into the world
water moves out of mesophyll cells to form thin layer of moisture which evaporates into water vapour in the intercellular air spaces (spongy) and accumulates in large air spaces near the stomata, this reduces water potential in mesophyll cells = movement of water from xylem (high) to mesophyll to replace film of moisture, accumulated H2O(g) diffuses to surrounding drier air through stomata
factors for transpiration rate
↑transpiration = ↑temperature + ↑light intensity + ↑wind + ↓humidity
wiliting
guard cells lose turgor /flaccid = close stomata to reduce loss of H2O (g) + droopy leaves that reduce SA exposed to sunlight
assimilation
digested molecules used up in body
digestion mouth
Mouth = salivary amylase, starch → maltose produced by salivary gland, (Chemical Digestion) pH 7 + saliva softens food + teeth (Physical digestion)
peristalsis
Rhythmic wave like contractions that uses antagonistic muscles (Circular = inside, Longitudinal = outside) = dilation/ constriction of lumen, pushes food from oesophagus to stomach
stomach digestion
pH 8/10 that neutralises acidic chyme, trypsinogen in pancreatic juice converted to trypsin (protein → polypeptide) via enterokinase in intestinal juice, intestinal juice = peptidase that breaks down polypeptides into amino acids, bile emulsifies large fat globules into small fat molecules, lipase = fat → fatty acid + glycerol, Maltase = maltose → glucose
absorption in ileum
folds + villi with microvilli that ↑SA:V, thinner membrane that’s one cell thick = ↑diffusion + ↑rate of absorption, beneath villus = surrounded by dense network of capillaries that QUICKLY carry away nutrients to all parts of the body (maintains steep gradient for absorption of food substances)
villus structure
Villus contains lacteal/ lymphatic capillary which transports fats, fatty acids + glycerol diffuse into epithelium + form minute fat globules that enter lacteal via diffusion, villi = finger like projections
Capillaries; hepatic portal vein (sugars + amino acids) + lymphatic capillary (fats) from intestine to liver, hepatic + lymphatic vessels from liver to rest of body
functions of liver
Functions of liver = regulation of blood glucose concentration (metabolism), production of bile ( breakdown of haemoglobin to make bile + iron), storage of iron, protein synthesis, deamination of excess amino acids to form urea, detoxification + alcohol breakdown (alcohol = ↑reaction time, anti-depressant), breakdown of hormones
deamination
excess amino acids get their amino groups removed in the liver and converted into urea
phagocytes
↓Phagocytes = Reduced immunity due to lower rate of phagocytosis: ingestion + digestion + engulfing of foreign substances
lymphocytes
lower production of antibodies that bind to lesser pathogens = cannot kill them and remain in blood, More likely to suffer from infectious disease
capillaries
1 cell thick = faster rate of diffusion
blood types
AB = universal recipient O = universal donor
coagulation/clotting
damaged tissues produce thrombokinase that converts inactive prothrombin to active thrombin, thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin threads that entangles RBC and platelets in a trapped mesh, reduce blood loss
agglutination
Clumping of RBC between antigens on RBC and antibodies in blood plasma
heart cycle (systemic)
Oxygenated blood enters left atrium via pulmonary vein, atrial systole OF MUSCLES causes pressure > ventricle = force blood into left ventricle, ventricular systole OF MUSCLES causes pressure in ventricle > atrium, bicuspid valve closes to prevent backflow, pressure ventricle > aorta = blood forced into aorta + aortic valve close = blood flow through aorta
pulmonary circulation
Deoxygenated blood + tricuspid + pulmonary valve
muscles and blood pressure (pulmonary) ??
Muscles in left ventricle thicker > right ventricle, blood pressure in aorta > pulmonary artery, pulmonary artery = low pressure so deoxygenated blood flows slower in lungs to allow sufficient time for gaseous exchange, aorta = high pressure so oxygenated blood can be sent to the rest of the body QUICKLY for cellular respiration.
what prevents mixing of blood
what holds valve in place
Median septum = prevents mixing of deoxy + oxy blood
Chordae tendineae = tissue that holds valve in place
aerobic and anaerobic resp
Aerobic respiration can only release a limited amount of energy as oxygen gets used up = anaerobic respiration takes place; breakdown of glucose without O2 to form lactic acid
o2 debt
Oxygen debt incurs as more oxygen is used to oxidise lactic acid back into glucose
alveoli
numerous (↑SA:V = ↑gaseous exchange), alveolar and capillary walls = 1 cell thick = ↑rate of diffusion, coated with thin film of moisture for gases to dissolve
co2 transportation
CO2 from respiring cells enter RBC in bloodstream, carbonic anhydrase present in RBC converts carbon dioxide dissolved in water to carbonic acid (H2CO3), the acid is then converted to hydrogencarbonate ions (not using enzyme), CO2 forms back from acid to diffuse out of capillaries and into the alveoli when travelling into pulmonary vein
inhalation
diaphragm muscle contracts + flattens, external intercostal muscles contract, internal relax = ribs move closer = move upwards and outwards, ↑volume of thoracic cavity = ↑pressure in lungs = air forced into lungs (exhalation is js opposite, air forced OUT of lungs)
effects of smoke
nicotine; addictive and releases adrenaline that results in ↑blood clots, CO; carboxyhemoglobin = ↑rate of fats deposited in inner arterial walls = ↓ability to carry O2 in blood: BOTH OF THESE = CORONARY ♡ DISEASE, Tar; carcinogenic = lung cancer + paralyses cilia lining the air passages = ↑risk of chronic bronchitis and emphysema
respiratory diseases
Respiratory diseases = Chronic bronchitis =epithelium lining inflamed = unable to remove ↑mucus and dust, symptoms = difficulty breathing due to blocked airways
Emphysema = partition walls of alveoli break down that reduces SA:V = ↓gaseous exchange + lungs lose elasticity = cannot expand fully = breathing difficulty
Lung cancer = uncontrolled division of cells
gland cells in trachea
Gland cells in trachea produce mucus, ciliated cells have cilia that sweep trapped dust in mucus away from lungs and up the bronchi.
anabolic catabolic
Anabolic = building up complex, Catabolic = breaking down complex into simple
excretion
removal of metabolic waste like urea + CO2 to prevent accumulation as its toxic
blood plasma travel direction
Direction of travel for blood plasma = renal artery → afferent arteriole (↑diameter = ↑hydrostatic pressure) → forced through partially permeable basement membrane of glomerulus → into lumen of Bowman’s capsule (ultrafiltration) → proximal convoluted tubule (selective reabsorption) → Loop of Henlē → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct (ADH) → urea → urethra
ultrafiltration
small porous membrane prevents big proteins or blood cells from entering Bowman’s capsule filtrate, MUST HAVE PRESSURE, if ↓blood = ↓pressure = ↓ultrafiltration
selective reabsorption
reabsorbs (into capillaries via diffusion/active transport/osmosis) all useful substances like glucose/amino acids/H2O from filtrate, proximal tubule = ALL glucose + some amino + water, collecting duct = H2O and where ADH acts on.
urine composition
UREA and abit of water and mineral salts, diabetic has glucose in urine due to ↓insulin/ insulin resistance to converting it to glycogen, nephrons unable to reabsorb it fast
kidney dialysis
walls of tubing = partially permeable to allow small molecules to diffuse in/out tubing, fluid has healthy normal concen of glucose and amino acids AND NO UREA = concen gradient for urea to diffuse out, tubing is long + narrow = ↑SA:V, blood flow opposite of flow of dialysis fluid = steep gradient for ↑removal of waste
homoestasis definition
maintenance to keep internal conditions constant despite changes to external,
negative feedbakc
corrective mechanism that brings about a reverse effect to the stimulus
dermal layer of skin
arterioles that branch (vasoconstriction/vasodilation) into blood capillaries + hair follicle containing hair + sweat gland richly surrounded by blood capillaries + hair erector muscle + thermoreceptors that detect changes TO EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
regualtion of blood temp on hot day
thermoreceptors detect and send nerve impulses to hypothalamus in brain via sensory neuron = arterioles vasodilate and shunt vessels constrict → ↑loss of heat via CCR + ↑sweat production → ↑loss of latent heat of vaporisation when H2O in sweat evaporates, hair erector muscles relax = ↑air circulation + ↑breathing + ↓metabolic processes as they are exothermic
regulation of blood glucose conc
↑glucose = islets of langerhans in pancreas stimulated to produce ↑insulin that stimulates cells in LIVER to convert excess glucose to glycogen and ↑permeability of cells to glucose = ↓concen back to normal ↓glucose = islets produce ↑glucagon that stimulates cells in liver to convert glycogen/fats/amino acids/lactic acid to glucose until ↑concen back to normal
regulation of blood water potential
↑w.p = hypothalamus detects change = pituitary glands release ↓antidiuretic hormones = ↓permeability of cell membrane of cells on collecting duct to H2O = ↓selective reabsorption of H2O into body, more H2O in urine, ↓w.p = ↑ADH
endocrine gland
they are ductless, transport secreted hormones via bloodstream, pancreas = insulin + glucagon, pituitary gland = ADH, adrenal gland = adrenaline
adrenaline
secreted in bloodstream in response to stress or excitement, transported to target organs = ^blood pressure, heart rate, depth of breathing, metabolic reactions, blood glucose level and further constricts arterioles in skin
diabetes
pancreas doesn’t produce sufficient insulin, kidneys unable to fully reabsorb all glucose = glucose present in blood (Type I diabetes), Type II = insulin produced but target cells in liver are unresponsive
nervous system parts
Central nervous system = Brain + spinal cord
Axon = nerve fibre transmitting impulse AWAY FROM CELL BODY, dendron = towards
Myelin sheath = insulation of fatty layer, prevents wear out of neurons
Synapse = impulses transmitted between 2 different neurons ACROSS synapse by chemical means
Sensory (Stimulus to receptor), Relay (sensory to CNS), Motor (CNS to effector)
Sensory = long dendron + short axon + CIRCULAR CELL BODY
Motor = short dendron + long axon + irregular cell body
nerves
bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue
spine dorsal root ganglion and grey matter
Dorsal Root Ganglion = bulging, cell bodies of sensory
Grey matter of spinal = cell bodies of motor + relay
involuntary vs voluntary
Involuntary = REFLEX ARC = SHORTEST TIME!!!!! + does not travel to BOTH CNS organ Voluntary = BRAIN processes information + relayed DOWN/ALONG the spinal cord
if pricked (invoulntary)
Touch receptor stimulated, generated nerve impulses travel through the sensory neuron and the relay neuron, to the spinal cord, impulses transmitted through the motor neuron to effector muscle (arm) = contract = pull arm away
batting a ball away (voluntary)
photoreceptors in eye stimulated, generated nerve impulses transmitted to brain via sensory neuron in optic nerve, brain process information and sends nerve impulses down/along spinal cord via relay neuron, to the motor neuron to the effector muscle in arms that contract and bat the ball away.
reflex arc
shortest pathway taken by nerve impulses from receptor to effector
reflex action
involuntary immediate response to a stimulus without conscious control
photoreceptors on retina
Photoreceptors on retina; Cones = RGB + able to see colours in VISIBLE BRIGHT LIGHT as they absorb light of differing wavelengths, Rods = have pigment visual purple that is bleached in bright light (unable to send impulses immediately) + enable to see in BW in dark settings
focusing
adjustment of the curvature of the lens to produce clear images of objects on the retina
distance towards person
diverging light rays enter the eye, ciliary muscles contract → relaxing pull on suspensory ligaments that then slacken and relax their pull onto the lens → making the lean more thicker and convex → decreasing focal length due to greater refraction of light onto the retina = clear
near away from person
parallel rays, ciliary muscles relax + pulling onto suspensory ligaments→ become taut + pull on lens = thinner + less convex = increased focal length = decreased angle of refraction of light hitting retina = clear
pupil reflex
MUST talk about reflex arc (CNS); ↑light intensity = photoreceptors stimulated, sends nerve impulses to brain, sends impulses to muscles in the iris = circular muscles contract, radial relax = ↓diameter of pupil (constriction) = ↓light enter eye (↓light intensity = Circular muscles relax, Radial muscles contract = ↑diameter of pupil (dilation)= ↑light enter eye)
myopia
light rays do not converge at fovea = blurred vision + lens not elastic
clumping of protein in lens
lens opaque +↓ light passes through + ↓light refract on fovea + ↓photoreceptors stimulated = blurred vision
the eye is really fuckin important
im not kiddin u better know ur shit
DNA
deoxyribose nucleic acid made up of 2 anti-parallel strands thats twisted to form a double helix structure, is a polynucleotide; nucleotides = deoxyribose sugar + nitrogenous base (ATGC) + phosphate group.
1 chormosome
1 chromosome made up of 2 DNA molecules
function of dna
Function of DNA = carry genetic information and genes that code for the synthesis of specific polypeptides
gene
segments of DNA that each code for the synthesis of a SINGLE polypeptide
codon
3 nucleotides that code for the synthesis of a SINGLE amino acid
mRNA
single stranded with NO THYMINE (uracil) + ribose molecule = codes for amino acid synthesis + messenger between DNA and ribosomes to synthesise proteins
transcription DNA
gene unzips from DNA → template strand is complementary to mRNA thats synthesised
translation DNA
mRNA attaches to ribosome + tRNA brings complementary amino acid to each codon until synthesis stops = polypeptide produced
manufacturing of insulin dna
Manufacturing insulin via genetic engineering; insulin gene is isolated and bacterial plasmid (vector) cut using same restriction enzyme to produce complementary sticky ends, insulin inserted into plasmid via DNA ligase to form recombinant plasmid, bacteria cell treated to electric shocks using calcium ions to open pores of cell membrane, inserting the recombinant plasmid into the bacteria to form transgenic organism, cultivated in a fermenter and burst open to collect insulin produced.
adv and disadv of genetic engineering
Advantages = cheaper meds + crops grow in extreme conditions Disadvantages = high pricing of seeds + genes may cause human diseases
cell division
must know how to draw diff stages
what r chromosomes
condensed chromatin threads made up of DNA wrapped around histones and they code for genes
interphase
Interphase (NOT PART OF MITOSIS) = chromatin threads and centrioles replicate (identical threads) via DNA Replication; must be precisely controlled to prevent mutation + genetically stable + avoid uncontrolled division aka cancer
mitosis stages
Early prophase = nucleolus disappears + pair of centrioles move to opposite poles + chromatin threads coil, condense and shorten into chromosomes (sister chromatids attached to a centromere, X shaped)
Late prophase = nuclear envelope disappears + spindle threads extending from both poles where centriole is located
Metaphase = Chromosomes line up singly in the equator of spindle, with the fibres attaching to the centromere
Anaphase = centromere splits up, sister chromatids separated to form daughter chromosomes
Telophase = chromosomes uncoil into chromatin threads + nuclear envelope reforms + furrow forms on parent cell
Cytokinesis (NOT PART OF MITOSIS) = separation of cytoplasm to form daughter cells
genetic variation by meiosis
Genetic variation caused by; crossing over at prophase I + independent assortment of homologous chromosomes at metaphase I + fertilisation = ↑chances of survival
Genetic mutation can occur at ANAPHASE I + ANAPHASE II; usually sister chromatids separate when the centromeres divide but if centromere does not divide = 1 additional chromosome in daughter nuclei
meiosis stages
Prophase I; synapsis after chromatin condenses ( pairing up of homologous chromosomes), homologous chromosomes = similar in size and shape and have genes in the same loci/ segment and are maternal and paternal diploid chromosomes, crossing over of chromatids (point of crossing over = chiasma) +centrioles move to opposite poles + spindle fibres appear
Metaphase I = homologous chromosomes line up (in pairs) on equator
Anaphase I = separation of homologous chromosomes
Telophase I + Cytokinesis I = 2 haploid daughter cells
Prophase II = nuclear envelope disintegrates + centrioles move to opposite poles, spindle fibres appear
Metaphase I = chromosomes line up SINGLY along equator
Anaphase II = centromeres divide
Telophase II + Cytokinesis II = formation of 4 haploid daughter cells
meiosis fertilisation
Used only to produce gametes = produce 4 daughter nuclei with haploid chromosomes
Fertilisation = 2 haploid fuse into 1 diploid zygote
