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TSHALTAIAGFFA.IIAO.NCBDTCI.IIASOLAL,BAB,CAS,ATDOD.IIASOTBLBOBAOW.IITSOTEOAE.TSTAS-TTAHSLAASFATWCDTTNTD,IIAHRN.RH.IIHAYRTW.TIHTFMCTAC.CATHCATYOP.TINJTEOAR,NIFOCI.TITTOTJ.TESN. > 4E bio markers report MYE > Flashcards

4E bio markers report MYE Flashcards

1
Q

movement of substances answering technique

A
  1. direction of movement from lower to higher/ vice versa

2. process + conditions (energy/ppm)

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2
Q

effect of extreme ph on enzymes

A

denatures in both high and low

weakens hydrogen bonds in enzymes, changing 3d structure

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3
Q

nature of enzymes

A

highly specific, active site only complementary to 1 substrate = catalyses only 1 reaction.

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4
Q

rate of reaction (enzymes)

A

TALK ABOUT FREQUENCY OF EFFECTIVE COLLISIONS

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5
Q

polypeptides and proteins

A

Polypeptides = simple molecule + long-straight chains of amino acids, Proteins = complex molecule + long condensed chains of polypeptides folded into a 3D structure

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6
Q

breakdown of proteins

A

bestie no

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7
Q

Fatty acids and glycerol

A

formed via CHEMICAL digestion, not by bile ( emulsification of fat)

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8
Q

breakdown of starch

A

Starch broken down into maltose and then into glucose

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9
Q

nutrients, where thye are found and where they are digested

A

bitch idk

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10
Q

palisade mesophyll

A

Palisade mesophyll is vertically upright to allow more sunlight to DIRECTLY pass through the whole cell + it has the highest concentration of chloroplasts

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11
Q

epidermal layer plants

A

waxy cuticle that’s waterproof = reduce water loss

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12
Q

light stage photosynthesis

A

photolysis of water into O2 (given off) + H atom

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13
Q

dark stage photosynthesis

A

enzyme controlled reaction to form glucose from CO2 + H from light stage

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14
Q

stomata

A

controls gaseous exchange, day = CO2 in + H20 and O2 out, night = close to reduce loss of water vapour

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15
Q

process of photosynthesis yassified

A

Photosynthesis uses light energy in the presence of chlorophyll, energy used in photolysis to break bonds in H2O, H+ ions reduce CO2 to form glucose, energy in H ions are converted to chemical energy in the glucose molecules

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16
Q

xylem

A

lignin to strengthen walls
has no protoplasm + CROSS WALLS = provide continuous empty lumen that reduces resistance to conduct water more easily (hollow tube)

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17
Q

phloem

A

has little degenerate cytoplasm + sieve plates (what they do i do not know)

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18
Q

mesophyll waters trip out into the world

A

water moves out of mesophyll cells to form thin layer of moisture which evaporates into water vapour in the intercellular air spaces (spongy) and accumulates in large air spaces near the stomata, this reduces water potential in mesophyll cells = movement of water from xylem (high) to mesophyll to replace film of moisture, accumulated H2O(g) diffuses to surrounding drier air through stomata

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19
Q

factors for transpiration rate

A

↑transpiration = ↑temperature + ↑light intensity + ↑wind + ↓humidity

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20
Q

wiliting

A

guard cells lose turgor /flaccid = close stomata to reduce loss of H2O (g) + droopy leaves that reduce SA exposed to sunlight

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21
Q

assimilation

A

digested molecules used up in body

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22
Q

digestion mouth

A

Mouth = salivary amylase, starch → maltose produced by salivary gland, (Chemical Digestion) pH 7 + saliva softens food + teeth (Physical digestion)

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23
Q

peristalsis

A

Rhythmic wave like contractions that uses antagonistic muscles (Circular = inside, Longitudinal = outside) = dilation/ constriction of lumen, pushes food from oesophagus to stomach

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24
Q

stomach digestion

A

pH 8/10 that neutralises acidic chyme, trypsinogen in pancreatic juice converted to trypsin (protein → polypeptide) via enterokinase in intestinal juice, intestinal juice = peptidase that breaks down polypeptides into amino acids, bile emulsifies large fat globules into small fat molecules, lipase = fat → fatty acid + glycerol, Maltase = maltose → glucose

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25
Q

absorption in ileum

A

folds + villi with microvilli that ↑SA:V, thinner membrane that’s one cell thick = ↑diffusion + ↑rate of absorption, beneath villus = surrounded by dense network of capillaries that QUICKLY carry away nutrients to all parts of the body (maintains steep gradient for absorption of food substances)

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26
Q

villus structure

A

Villus contains lacteal/ lymphatic capillary which transports fats, fatty acids + glycerol diffuse into epithelium + form minute fat globules that enter lacteal via diffusion, villi = finger like projections
Capillaries; hepatic portal vein (sugars + amino acids) + lymphatic capillary (fats) from intestine to liver, hepatic + lymphatic vessels from liver to rest of body

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27
Q

functions of liver

A

Functions of liver = regulation of blood glucose concentration (metabolism), production of bile ( breakdown of haemoglobin to make bile + iron), storage of iron, protein synthesis, deamination of excess amino acids to form urea, detoxification + alcohol breakdown (alcohol = ↑reaction time, anti-depressant), breakdown of hormones

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28
Q

deamination

A

excess amino acids get their amino groups removed in the liver and converted into urea

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29
Q

phagocytes

A

↓Phagocytes = Reduced immunity due to lower rate of phagocytosis: ingestion + digestion + engulfing of foreign substances

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30
Q

lymphocytes

A

lower production of antibodies that bind to lesser pathogens = cannot kill them and remain in blood, More likely to suffer from infectious disease

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31
Q

capillaries

A

1 cell thick = faster rate of diffusion

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32
Q

blood types

A 
AB = universal recipient 
O = universal donor
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33
Q

coagulation/clotting

A

damaged tissues produce thrombokinase that converts inactive prothrombin to active thrombin, thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin threads that entangles RBC and platelets in a trapped mesh, reduce blood loss

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34
Q

agglutination

A

Clumping of RBC between antigens on RBC and antibodies in blood plasma

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35
Q

heart cycle (systemic)

A

Oxygenated blood enters left atrium via pulmonary vein, atrial systole OF MUSCLES causes pressure > ventricle = force blood into left ventricle, ventricular systole OF MUSCLES causes pressure in ventricle > atrium, bicuspid valve closes to prevent backflow, pressure ventricle > aorta = blood forced into aorta + aortic valve close = blood flow through aorta

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36
Q

pulmonary circulation

A

Deoxygenated blood + tricuspid + pulmonary valve

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37
Q

muscles and blood pressure (pulmonary) ??

A

Muscles in left ventricle thicker > right ventricle, blood pressure in aorta > pulmonary artery, pulmonary artery = low pressure so deoxygenated blood flows slower in lungs to allow sufficient time for gaseous exchange, aorta = high pressure so oxygenated blood can be sent to the rest of the body QUICKLY for cellular respiration.

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38
Q

what prevents mixing of blood

what holds valve in place

A

Median septum = prevents mixing of deoxy + oxy blood

Chordae tendineae = tissue that holds valve in place

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39
Q

aerobic and anaerobic resp

A

Aerobic respiration can only release a limited amount of energy as oxygen gets used up = anaerobic respiration takes place; breakdown of glucose without O2 to form lactic acid

40
Q

o2 debt

A

Oxygen debt incurs as more oxygen is used to oxidise lactic acid back into glucose

41
Q

alveoli

A

numerous (↑SA:V = ↑gaseous exchange), alveolar and capillary walls = 1 cell thick = ↑rate of diffusion, coated with thin film of moisture for gases to dissolve

42
Q

co2 transportation

A

CO2 from respiring cells enter RBC in bloodstream, carbonic anhydrase present in RBC converts carbon dioxide dissolved in water to carbonic acid (H2CO3), the acid is then converted to hydrogencarbonate ions (not using enzyme), CO2 forms back from acid to diffuse out of capillaries and into the alveoli when travelling into pulmonary vein

43
Q

inhalation

A

diaphragm muscle contracts + flattens, external intercostal muscles contract, internal relax = ribs move closer = move upwards and outwards, ↑volume of thoracic cavity = ↑pressure in lungs = air forced into lungs (exhalation is js opposite, air forced OUT of lungs)

44
Q

effects of smoke

A

nicotine; addictive and releases adrenaline that results in ↑blood clots, CO; carboxyhemoglobin = ↑rate of fats deposited in inner arterial walls = ↓ability to carry O2 in blood: BOTH OF THESE = CORONARY ♡ DISEASE, Tar; carcinogenic = lung cancer + paralyses cilia lining the air passages = ↑risk of chronic bronchitis and emphysema

45
Q

respiratory diseases

A

Respiratory diseases = Chronic bronchitis =epithelium lining inflamed = unable to remove ↑mucus and dust, symptoms = difficulty breathing due to blocked airways
Emphysema = partition walls of alveoli break down that reduces SA:V = ↓gaseous exchange + lungs lose elasticity = cannot expand fully = breathing difficulty
Lung cancer = uncontrolled division of cells

46
Q

gland cells in trachea

A

Gland cells in trachea produce mucus, ciliated cells have cilia that sweep trapped dust in mucus away from lungs and up the bronchi.

47
Q

anabolic catabolic

A

Anabolic = building up complex, Catabolic = breaking down complex into simple

48
Q

excretion

A

removal of metabolic waste like urea + CO2 to prevent accumulation as its toxic

49
Q

blood plasma travel direction

A

Direction of travel for blood plasma = renal artery → afferent arteriole (↑diameter = ↑hydrostatic pressure) → forced through partially permeable basement membrane of glomerulus → into lumen of Bowman’s capsule (ultrafiltration) → proximal convoluted tubule (selective reabsorption) → Loop of Henlē → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct (ADH) → urea → urethra

50
Q

ultrafiltration

A

small porous membrane prevents big proteins or blood cells from entering Bowman’s capsule filtrate, MUST HAVE PRESSURE, if ↓blood = ↓pressure = ↓ultrafiltration

51
Q

selective reabsorption

A

reabsorbs (into capillaries via diffusion/active transport/osmosis) all useful substances like glucose/amino acids/H2O from filtrate, proximal tubule = ALL glucose + some amino + water, collecting duct = H2O and where ADH acts on.

52
Q

urine composition

A

UREA and abit of water and mineral salts, diabetic has glucose in urine due to ↓insulin/ insulin resistance to converting it to glycogen, nephrons unable to reabsorb it fast

53
Q

kidney dialysis

A

walls of tubing = partially permeable to allow small molecules to diffuse in/out tubing, fluid has healthy normal concen of glucose and amino acids AND NO UREA = concen gradient for urea to diffuse out, tubing is long + narrow = ↑SA:V, blood flow opposite of flow of dialysis fluid = steep gradient for ↑removal of waste

54
Q

homoestasis definition

A

maintenance to keep internal conditions constant despite changes to external,

55
Q

negative feedbakc

A

corrective mechanism that brings about a reverse effect to the stimulus

56
Q

dermal layer of skin

A

arterioles that branch (vasoconstriction/vasodilation) into blood capillaries + hair follicle containing hair + sweat gland richly surrounded by blood capillaries + hair erector muscle + thermoreceptors that detect changes TO EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

57
Q

regualtion of blood temp on hot day

A

thermoreceptors detect and send nerve impulses to hypothalamus in brain via sensory neuron = arterioles vasodilate and shunt vessels constrict → ↑loss of heat via CCR + ↑sweat production → ↑loss of latent heat of vaporisation when H2O in sweat evaporates, hair erector muscles relax = ↑air circulation + ↑breathing + ↓metabolic processes as they are exothermic

58
Q

regulation of blood glucose conc

A 
↑glucose = islets of langerhans in pancreas stimulated to produce ↑insulin that stimulates cells in LIVER to convert excess glucose to glycogen and ↑permeability of cells to glucose = ↓concen back to normal
↓glucose = islets produce ↑glucagon that stimulates cells in liver to convert glycogen/fats/amino acids/lactic acid  to glucose until ↑concen back to normal
59
Q

regulation of blood water potential

A

↑w.p = hypothalamus detects change = pituitary glands release ↓antidiuretic hormones = ↓permeability of cell membrane of cells on collecting duct to H2O = ↓selective reabsorption of H2O into body, more H2O in urine, ↓w.p = ↑ADH

60
Q

endocrine gland

A

they are ductless, transport secreted hormones via bloodstream, pancreas = insulin + glucagon, pituitary gland = ADH, adrenal gland = adrenaline

61
Q

adrenaline

A

secreted in bloodstream in response to stress or excitement, transported to target organs = ^blood pressure, heart rate, depth of breathing, metabolic reactions, blood glucose level and further constricts arterioles in skin

62
Q

diabetes

A

pancreas doesn’t produce sufficient insulin, kidneys unable to fully reabsorb all glucose = glucose present in blood (Type I diabetes), Type II = insulin produced but target cells in liver are unresponsive

63
Q

nervous system parts

A

Central nervous system = Brain + spinal cord
Axon = nerve fibre transmitting impulse AWAY FROM CELL BODY, dendron = towards
Myelin sheath = insulation of fatty layer, prevents wear out of neurons
Synapse = impulses transmitted between 2 different neurons ACROSS synapse by chemical means
Sensory (Stimulus to receptor), Relay (sensory to CNS), Motor (CNS to effector)
Sensory = long dendron + short axon + CIRCULAR CELL BODY
Motor = short dendron + long axon + irregular cell body

64
Q

nerves

A

bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue

65
Q

spine dorsal root ganglion and grey matter

A

Dorsal Root Ganglion = bulging, cell bodies of sensory

Grey matter of spinal = cell bodies of motor + relay

66
Q

involuntary vs voluntary

A 
Involuntary = REFLEX ARC = SHORTEST TIME!!!!! + does not travel to BOTH CNS organ
Voluntary = BRAIN processes information + relayed DOWN/ALONG the spinal cord
67
Q

if pricked (invoulntary)

A

Touch receptor stimulated, generated nerve impulses travel through the sensory neuron and the relay neuron, to the spinal cord, impulses transmitted through the motor neuron to effector muscle (arm) = contract = pull arm away

68
Q

batting a ball away (voluntary)

A

photoreceptors in eye stimulated, generated nerve impulses transmitted to brain via sensory neuron in optic nerve, brain process information and sends nerve impulses down/along spinal cord via relay neuron, to the motor neuron to the effector muscle in arms that contract and bat the ball away.

69
Q

reflex arc

A

shortest pathway taken by nerve impulses from receptor to effector

70
Q

reflex action

A

involuntary immediate response to a stimulus without conscious control

71
Q

photoreceptors on retina

A

Photoreceptors on retina; Cones = RGB + able to see colours in VISIBLE BRIGHT LIGHT as they absorb light of differing wavelengths, Rods = have pigment visual purple that is bleached in bright light (unable to send impulses immediately) + enable to see in BW in dark settings

72
Q

focusing

A

adjustment of the curvature of the lens to produce clear images of objects on the retina

73
Q

distance towards person

A

diverging light rays enter the eye, ciliary muscles contract → relaxing pull on suspensory ligaments that then slacken and relax their pull onto the lens → making the lean more thicker and convex → decreasing focal length due to greater refraction of light onto the retina = clear

74
Q

near away from person

A

parallel rays, ciliary muscles relax + pulling onto suspensory ligaments→ become taut + pull on lens = thinner + less convex = increased focal length = decreased angle of refraction of light hitting retina = clear

75
Q

pupil reflex

A

MUST talk about reflex arc (CNS); ↑light intensity = photoreceptors stimulated, sends nerve impulses to brain, sends impulses to muscles in the iris = circular muscles contract, radial relax = ↓diameter of pupil (constriction) = ↓light enter eye (↓light intensity = Circular muscles relax, Radial muscles contract = ↑diameter of pupil (dilation)= ↑light enter eye)

76
Q

myopia

A

light rays do not converge at fovea = blurred vision + lens not elastic

77
Q

clumping of protein in lens

A

lens opaque +↓ light passes through + ↓light refract on fovea + ↓photoreceptors stimulated = blurred vision

78
Q

the eye is really fuckin important

A

im not kiddin u better know ur shit

79
Q

DNA

A

deoxyribose nucleic acid made up of 2 anti-parallel strands thats twisted to form a double helix structure, is a polynucleotide; nucleotides = deoxyribose sugar + nitrogenous base (ATGC) + phosphate group.

80
Q

1 chormosome

A

1 chromosome made up of 2 DNA molecules

81
Q

function of dna

A

Function of DNA = carry genetic information and genes that code for the synthesis of specific polypeptides

82
Q

gene

A

segments of DNA that each code for the synthesis of a SINGLE polypeptide

83
Q

codon

A

3 nucleotides that code for the synthesis of a SINGLE amino acid

84
Q

mRNA

A

single stranded with NO THYMINE (uracil) + ribose molecule = codes for amino acid synthesis + messenger between DNA and ribosomes to synthesise proteins

85
Q

transcription DNA

A

gene unzips from DNA → template strand is complementary to mRNA thats synthesised

86
Q

translation DNA

A

mRNA attaches to ribosome + tRNA brings complementary amino acid to each codon until synthesis stops = polypeptide produced

87
Q

manufacturing of insulin dna

A

Manufacturing insulin via genetic engineering; insulin gene is isolated and bacterial plasmid (vector) cut using same restriction enzyme to produce complementary sticky ends, insulin inserted into plasmid via DNA ligase to form recombinant plasmid, bacteria cell treated to electric shocks using calcium ions to open pores of cell membrane, inserting the recombinant plasmid into the bacteria to form transgenic organism, cultivated in a fermenter and burst open to collect insulin produced.

88
Q

adv and disadv of genetic engineering

A 
Advantages = cheaper meds + crops grow in extreme conditions 
Disadvantages = high pricing of seeds + genes may cause human diseases
89
Q

cell division

A

must know how to draw diff stages

90
Q

what r chromosomes

A

condensed chromatin threads made up of DNA wrapped around histones and they code for genes

91
Q

interphase

A

Interphase (NOT PART OF MITOSIS) = chromatin threads and centrioles replicate (identical threads) via DNA Replication; must be precisely controlled to prevent mutation + genetically stable + avoid uncontrolled division aka cancer

92
Q

mitosis stages

A

Early prophase = nucleolus disappears + pair of centrioles move to opposite poles + chromatin threads coil, condense and shorten into chromosomes (sister chromatids attached to a centromere, X shaped)
Late prophase = nuclear envelope disappears + spindle threads extending from both poles where centriole is located
Metaphase = Chromosomes line up singly in the equator of spindle, with the fibres attaching to the centromere
Anaphase = centromere splits up, sister chromatids separated to form daughter chromosomes
Telophase = chromosomes uncoil into chromatin threads + nuclear envelope reforms + furrow forms on parent cell
Cytokinesis (NOT PART OF MITOSIS) = separation of cytoplasm to form daughter cells

93
Q

genetic variation by meiosis

A

Genetic variation caused by; crossing over at prophase I + independent assortment of homologous chromosomes at metaphase I + fertilisation = ↑chances of survival
Genetic mutation can occur at ANAPHASE I + ANAPHASE II; usually sister chromatids separate when the centromeres divide but if centromere does not divide = 1 additional chromosome in daughter nuclei

94
Q

meiosis stages

A

Prophase I; synapsis after chromatin condenses ( pairing up of homologous chromosomes), homologous chromosomes = similar in size and shape and have genes in the same loci/ segment and are maternal and paternal diploid chromosomes, crossing over of chromatids (point of crossing over = chiasma) +centrioles move to opposite poles + spindle fibres appear
Metaphase I = homologous chromosomes line up (in pairs) on equator
Anaphase I = separation of homologous chromosomes
Telophase I + Cytokinesis I = 2 haploid daughter cells

Prophase II = nuclear envelope disintegrates + centrioles move to opposite poles, spindle fibres appear
Metaphase I = chromosomes line up SINGLY along equator
Anaphase II = centromeres divide
Telophase II + Cytokinesis II = formation of 4 haploid daughter cells

95
Q

meiosis fertilisation

A

Used only to produce gametes = produce 4 daughter nuclei with haploid chromosomes
Fertilisation = 2 haploid fuse into 1 diploid zygote

TSHALTAIAGFFA.IIAO.NCBDTCI.IIASOLAL,BAB,CAS,ATDOD.IIASOTBLBOBAOW.IITSOTEOAE.TSTAS-TTAHSLAASFATWCDTTNTD,IIAHRN.RH.IIHAYRTW.TIHTFMCTAC.CATHCATYOP.TINJTEOAR,NIFOCI.TITTOTJ.TESN. (28 decks)

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