FINAL FINAL Flashcards
Gonads produce ______ which create new individuals when merged.
gametes
The female gamete is an _______.
oocyte
The male gamete is a _____.
sperm
_____ is when primordial follicles regress from 1.5 million –> 400,000.
Atresia
Spermatids are formed in ______.
Spermiogenesis
The ____ of sperm contains mitochondria necessary for energy production and a centriole.
midpiece (neck)
_______ stimulation is needed for an erection and ______ is needed for ejaculation.
parasympathetic
sympathetic
Prostrate enlargement occurs with age and can interferes with ______ and ______ functions.
sexual and urinary
_____ follicles are surrounded by thecal cells which secrete androgens needed to make estrogen.
primordial
At the end of the pre-embryonic period a ______ is left.
blastocyst
In the pre-embryonic stage it begins with fertilization which leads to a ______, then to a blastocyst.
zygote
A _____ is formed when the zona pellucida starts to degenerate allowing fluid to enter the morula forming a fluid filled cavity.
blastocyst
The two distinct component of a blastocyst?
trophoblast and embryoblast
_____ is responsible for relaxation of ligamentous joints such as sacroiliac joins and pubic symphysis.
estrogen
____ is responsible for functional layer growth and prevention of menstruation
progesterone
Fetal blood and maternal blood ___, but bloodstreams so are so close they allow for the exchanges of gases and nutrients.
do not mix unless something goes wrong
Left and right sides of the embryo curve and migrate toward the midline during ______
transverse folding
_____ are contractions (braxton-hicks) are not strong enough to results in the three stages of True labor.
false labor
Labor is also known as ________.
parturition
Increased levels of progesterone lead to an increase in breathing rate, increasing the mothers ______
oxygen consumption
____ is the establishment of primary germ layers by the epiblast.
gastrulation
______ is when uterine contractions that increase in intensity and regulatory and that results in changes to the cervix
true labor
The _____ causes the mother to metabolize more fatty acids, saving glucose for the fetus.
HPL
______ are hormone like substances released from seminal vesicles that promotes widening and dilation of external os of cervix
prostaglandins
Labor - positive feedback
Positive feedback mechanism
Contractions intensify causing fetus’s head to push against the cervix
This stimulates the stretching and dilation of the cervix
This stimulates the release of more oxytocin
Contractions also stimulate the placenta to secrete more prostaglandins
End of positive feedback is when the fetus and placenta are expelled from the body
True labor has three stages:
dilation, expulsion, placental
The longest of the three stages of true labor.
dilation stage
During the ____ stage the amniotic sac releases the amniotic fluid (water breaking)
dilation stage
The three primary germ layers
ectoderm
mesoderm
endoderm
The pituitary gland is made by the _____.
ectoderm
At the end of the 1st trimester the mother is carrying a ______.
festus
A series of mitotic divisions resulting in an increase in cell number, but not an increase in the overall size of the structure is called ______.
cleavage
At the 16-cell stage (4 divisions) the zygote is called a _____ and enters the ______ of the uterus.
morula
lumen
The left ventricular wall is thicker than the right ventricular wall because ________.
pump blood with greater pressure
If the vagal nerve to the heart was cut what would happen?
It would cause a increase in heart rate
vagal tone
?
Which does NOT help maintain lymph flow?
a. smooth muscle contraction
b. breathing
c. beating cilia against pseudostratified epithelium
c. skeleton muscle contraction
beating cilia against pseudostratified epithelium
The presence of fatty chyme in the small intestines in the small intestines stimulates it to release ______ to release _________.
a. gastrin/ liver
b. cck / gallblader secretion
c. secretin / stomach secretion
d. cck / pancreatic secretion
B. CCK/gallbladder secretion
An actively contracting muscle will produce acid molecules lowering pH causing hemoglobin to release _______ oxygen.
more oxygen and the curve will shift to the right
Oxygen Saturation curve
?
The stomach lining is protected from stomach acid by the ________.
a. bicarbonate layer
b. gap junctions
bicarbonate layer
Negative feedback inhibition occurs when :
TH to AP
The zona glomerulsa of the adrenal cortex helps to regulate:
salt/water balance (aldosterone)
Reduced hormone concentration in the blood often causes target cells to _______.
upregulate receptors to increase sensitivity
To compensate for significant blood loss the ANS triggers ________.
vasoconstriciton and an increased heart rate
How are NA levels and BP related?
increased NA levels, cause increased blood volume, increase BP
The mechanism that establishes the medullary osmotic gradient depends mostly on the permability properties of the ______.
loop of henle (nephron loop)
Insulin glucose curve
?
Chris secreted less insulin or his insulin has less effect
Which structure in the heart gives rise to this electrical area on the action potential curve (plateau)?
VG calcium in
VG potassium out
balancing each other = plateau
Which is an example of a positive feedback loop?
Opening NA channel causing more ions to flow in channels MORE MORE MORE
Which would happen to a women that lacked thecal cells?
sterility
The organ involved in reducing the chances of autoimmune disorder?
thymus
When someone loses a lot of blood they tend to not urinate for a few days because. _________.
Glomerular BP decreased
After eating too much it can be hard to breath because _______.
full stomach impedes diaphragm contraction
Influence blood pressure:
excessive rbc production would increase blood pressure
Increased release in both glucose and fatty acid are not caused by ______.
PTH - only influences calcium release
Release of breast milk occurs when ______ cause _______ contract.
oxytocin causes the release
contracts myoepitheal cells?
Not a function of liver:
synthesize chylomicrons - in intestines
The lungs do not collapse do not collapse after exhalation because
intrapleural pressure is lower than intrapulmonary
When blood becomes more alkaline than normal the renal tubules secrete ______.
bicarbonate and reabsorbing H+ ions
If a patient loses a lot of blood the aorta will have less stretch, what will happen?
cardiac output will increase
Ovulation occurs when during your 28 day cycle?
day 14
What triggers menstruation?
a decrease in all hormone, but especially estrogen and progesterone
In the scrotum cools down the testicular artery via the ______.
pampinform plexus
______ cells are non dividing support cells that protect developing sperm by creating the blood testis barrier.
sustentacular
The flow of sperm
Seminiferous tubules –> rete testis –> efferent ducturles –> epididymis –> vas deferens –> ejaculatory duct –> prostatic urethra
Where would you find the intersitial cells and what do they do.
outside of the seminiferous tubules and they make androgens
What binds testosterone to keep it in the testis and where does it come from?
ABP, susententacular cells
What two muscles within the testis help to move them for optimal temperature?
dartos and cremaster
Semen normally contain ______ sperm.
200-500 million
______ is needed to neutralize the acidity of the vagina as well as nourish the sperm.
seminal fluid
During the ______ phase of female sexual response mammary glands, clitoris, vaginal wall, bulbs of the vetibule and labia become engorged; vestibular glands within vagina produce mucin for lubrication; uterus shifts from anteverted position to more erect position, inferior part of vaginal wall constricts slightly.
excitement phase
At the 16 cell stage (4 divisions) the zygote is called a ______. This division takes place within the zona pellucida.
morula
During implantation what two layers does the trophoblast divide into?
cytorophoblast and synctiotrophoblast
The embryoblast differentiates into what two layers?
hypoblast and epiblast
The _____ is formed by both cytotrophoblast cells and synctiotrophoblast (trophoblast)
chorion, which is the fetal layer of the placenta
What is the function of relaxin?
promotes blood vessel growth in uterus
Estrogen/progesterone/HPL cause _____.
increased insulin resistance
___ is produced by the synctiotrophoblast and signals corpus luteum to continue secreting estrogen/progesterone to thicken and maintain uterine lining.
HCG
The extraembryonic membrane contains the yolk sac, _____ and chorion.
amnion
The _______ develops into the pituitary gland.
ecotderm
The placenta secrete HCT, CRH, relaxing, and estrogen/progesterone, but not _____.
HCG
What two hormones cause labor to increase?
estrogen and oxytocin
Which hormone is responsible for a mothers increase in oxygen consumption?
progesterone
True Breast Milk vs Colustrum
Breast more fat several growth factors essential fatty acids specific enzymes for digestion more lactose
Colustrum less fat high in IgA lower in fat higher in calcium
_______ digestion involves specific enzymes to break chemical bonds, making smaller molecules for absorption.
chemical absorption
______ digestion is when food is physically broken down. (no chemical changes)
mechanical
______ is the alternating contraction sequence causing the pushing of ingested material through the GI tract.
peristalsis
______ is the kneading motion within different regions of the GI tract that lack directional movement.
mixing
All ____ decidous teeth are lost and relaced with ____ permanent teeth.
20
32
_____ do not included in the deciduous teeth.
molars
ICPM stands for
incisor/ canines/ premolars/ molars
This is the dental formula for most children
212/212
This is the dental formula for most adults
2123/2123
The superior 1/3 of the esophagus is _____.
skeletal muscle fibers
The middle 1/3 of the esophagus is ______.
skeletal and smooth muscle
The bottom 1/3 of the esophagus is _____.
smooth muscle
______ line the stomach lumen and extend into gastric pits. They secrete alkaline product with mucin to prevent ulceration of the stomach lining.
surface mucous cells
______ line base of gastric pits into the gastric glands. They produce an acidic mucin to help maintain the secretion of the HCl.
mucous neck cells
The ______ reflex is initiated by the thought, smell, sight, or taste of food.
cephalic
_____ absorb lipid and lipid-soluble vitamins that can’t be absorbed into the bloodstream.
lacteal
The ______ absorb water and electrolytes from remaining digestive material.
large intestines
Pancreatic ____ digest starch.
amylase
Pancreastic ____ digest triglycerides.
lipase
______ needed for protein digestion.
inactive proteases
____ are needed for digestion of nucleotides.
nucleases
_____ is released in response to fat
CCk
_____ is released in response to acidic chyme.
secretin
Wave of peristalic muscular contraction moves through pylorus toward pyloric sphincter creating a pressure gradient to ______ the spincter.
open
Pepsinogen (inactive) is released into the lumen of the GI and converted to _______.
pepsin (active)
_____ nutrients must be obtained and absorbed by the digestive system.
essential
_____ nutrients are provided by biochemical processes within the boy.
nonessential
Glucose is a _____ nutrient.
nonessential
Cholesterol is a _____ nutrient.
nonessential
____ adds bulk to the GI tract and stimulates peristalsis of LI facilitating defections.
fiber
____ nitrogen balance is when more nitrogen is absorbed than is excreted.
positive
i.e. growth, pregnancy, recovering from injury
____ nitrogen balance is when more nitrogen is excreted than absorbed.
negative
i.e. malnutrition and blood loss
Water soluble vitamins
B and C
Fat soluble vitamins
KADE
Vitamin ___ for blood clotting
K
_____ minerals are needed at greater than 100 mg/day.
Major
_____ minerals require less and 100 mg/day.
trace
_______ provides visual for portions of the types of foods we need.
Myplate
The _____ provides the serving sizes for the types of foods we need.
food pyramid
In the post absorptive state _____ is released.
glucagon
In the absorptive state ____ is released.
insulin
_____ soluble levels can reach toxic levels.
fat
Insulin stimulate glycogenesis in the liver and _____.
muscles
Insulin stimulates _______ and inhibits lipolysis in adipocytes.
lipogenesis
Insulin stimulates most cells to increase _____ uptake increasing the rate of protein synthesis.
amino acid
Glucagon stimulated glycogenolysis and ______ in liver cells.
gluconeogenesis
______ are organic molecules required for normal metabolism.
vitamins
_____ are inorganic ions with diverse functions within the body.
minerals
Fatty acids are ____ to monoglycerides to re form triglycerides than wrapped in protein to form a chylomicron. Then the chylomicron enters the lacteal.
reattached
______ starts chemical digestion of carbohydrates.
salivary amylase
_____ is released when food enters the stomach by G cells.
gastrin
______ nerve plexus innervates smooth muscle and glands of mucosa as well as submucosa.
submucosal nerve plexus
_____ nerve plexus is located between outer longitudinal and inner circular layers.
myenteric nerve plexus
The _____ system contains both submucosal and myenteric nerve plexi and are short reflexes.
enteric
Retroperitoneal organs: DARP
outside
duodenum
ascending/descending colon
rectum
pancreas
The stomach release ______ which is needed for absorption of vitamin B12.
intrinsic
The stomach mechanically digests the contents of the stomach into a semifluid mass called _____.
chyme
Chemical digestion of both protein and fat occurs in the _____.
stomach
Absorption in the stomach is limited to small, nonpolar substances such as _____.
alcohol and aspirin
_____ released when pH of stomach is too low. This inhibits acid secretion by directly affecting parietal, ECL and G cells.
somatostatin
Somatostatin ____ HCL release from chief cells.
decreases
____ contributes to the breakdown of plant cell walls.
HCL
The surface of the small intestine is increased by circular folds, villi, microvilli (brush border), but not _______.
rugae
Gastroileal reflex stimulates movement of contents ______.
ileum to cecum
fesces to rectum????
Blood mixes as it passes ____ the hepatic lobules between the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein.
into
CCK stimulates smooth muscle in gallbladder wall to cause release of ___.
bile
CCk relaxes _______ of hepatopancreatic ampulla.
smooth muscle
BMR varies due to
age
lean body mass
sex
levels of various hormones in blood
_____ makes you feel full.
leptin
_____ makes you feel hungry.
ghrelin
_______ induce the release of leptin from stomach lining.
proteins
_____ also release leptin.
adipocytes
____ contain all essential amino acids.
complete
There are ___ essential and ___ nonessential amino acids in the body that makes up proteins.
8 essential
12 nonessential
_____ is needed for formation/maintenance of the skeleton, muscle contraction, exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and blood clotting.
calcium
______ stimulates the release of energy reserves from hepatocytes/adipocytes. (gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, lipolysis)
growth hormone
_______ stimulate the release of energy reserves from hepatocytes/adipocytes.
thyroid hormones
_____ stimulates the release of energy reserves from hepatocytes/adipocytes.
cortisol
________ converting non-carbohydrates into glucose (type of interconversion).
gluconeogenesis
During lipid metabolism, ________, is when fatty acids are broken down to acetyl CoA.
beta oxidation
Cholesterol is synthesized into bile salts and released with bile in the _____.
small intestines
____ is used as a component of the plasma membrane.
cholesterol
A precursor for steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D.
cholesterol
_____ can be synthesized by the liver.
cholesterol
______ opposes HDL.
VLDL and LDL
The only essential fatty acids are?
omega 6 and 3
_____ fat has no double bonds
saturated
_____ fat has one double bond.
unsaturated
_____ fat has two or more double bonds.
polyunsaturated
Increased stretch of the myocardium results in an ______ in overlapping of actin and myosin within the sarcomere.
increase
______ is when blood flows through two capillary beds connected by a portal vein.
portal system
capillary - portal vein - capillary
Due to the lungs not being function, blood pressure in the _____ side of the heart is greater than the _____ side of the heart.
right
left
As total cross sectional area increases, blood velocity _______.
decreases (less pressure)
As we inhale, the diaphragm compresses the abdominopelvic cavity _____ intra-abdominal pressure. This squeezes the abdominal vessels, moving the blood up to the _______.
increase
thoracic cavity
_____ is the amount of friction the blood experiences as it is transported through the blood vessels.
peripheral resistance
______ is affected by the length of blood vessels and the blood viscosity and radius.
peripheral resistance
When bp is elevated urine formation is decreased by Antigotensen II, Aldosterone, and _____.
ADH
antidiurectic hormone
ANP increases ______, but still decreases blood pressure.
urination
The body senses increased CO2 within the blood via chemoreceptors , stimulates ________.
carotid bodies
The nodal cell RMP is _____.
-60mv
The nodal cell threshold is ____.
-40mv
With nodal cells _____ causes the action potential to reach threshold.
VG Na+ in
With nodal cells _____ causes depolarization.
VG Ca2+ in
With nodal cells _____ causes repolarization.
VG K+ out
From RMP to threshold is called _____.
pacemaker potential
_______ is the amount of blood that is pumped by a single ventricle in 1 minute.
cardiac output
HR x SV =
cardiac output
An _____ in HR and/or SV increases stroke volume.
increases
_______ is the average measure of the blood pressure forces on the arteries.
mean arterial pressure
MAP =
Diastolic BP + 1/3(Systolic - Diastolic)
110 mm HG or higher is ____ blood flow and causes edema.
too much (MAP)
70-110 mm HG is ____ blood flow.
good
Below 60 mm HG is ____ blood flow.
insuffscient
Skeletal muscle fibers need ______ and nodal cells do not.
stimulation
The ____ produces angiotensinogen (inactive) constantly. When the kidneys release renin it converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.
liver
Angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II by ____.
ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme)
When a coronary artery is narrowed or blocked, nearby arteries can branch out to carry blood to the area that is affected is called _______.
collarteral circulation
_______ capillaries allow for small plasma proteins to move between plasma and tissues causing a greater fluid exchange between ______ and intersitital fluid.
fenestrated
blood
_____ are very large vessels that contain blood flow to tunica externa through network of small arteries.
vasa vasorum
Blood vessels are only innervated by _____ of ANS.
sympathetic division
_______ division influences HR and SV..
sympathetic
_____ in the red bone marrow form platelets by allowing extensions of their cytoplasm into the capillaries.
megakaryocytes
The _____ coronary artery supplies the left and anterior sections of the heart.
left coronary
The ideal blood pH range is ____.
7.35 - 7.45
The _____ atrium receives deoxygenated bloom.
right
The ______ is the outermost layer of the heart made of dense irregular ct.
fibrous pericardium
The fibrous pericardium anchors the heart in the thoracic cavity and prevent ____ of chambers.
overexpansion
The ____ contains intercalated discs, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
myocardium
The ______ keep the AVs closed when ventricles are contracting.
papillary muscles
______ is measured when the atria start to relax and the ventricles start to contract causing no movement of blood.
isovolumetric contaction
The ____ zone are the passageways that serve to transport atmospheric air into the lungs. (nose to terminal bronchiole)
conducting
____ is protein that increases mucus viscosity and traps dust/dirt/microorgaisms.
mucin
_____ is when air is forced past vocal cords during expiration while intrinsic laryngeal muscles narrow (arytenoid cartilages) opening of rima glottidis.
sound production
Lateral dimension changes occur due to the elevation and depression of the ______.
rib cage
During quiet expiration the intrapulmonary pressure increase because the ______.
recoil of the elastic fibers
Ventilation _____ is altered by changes in bronchodilation and constriction.
rates
Glomerular ____ occurs due to pressure differences between the glomerulus and glomerular capsule.
filtration
______ is the passive movement of water from blood plasma within the glomerular capillaries to capsular space of glemerular capsule.
glomerular filtration
With the myogenic response the afferent arteriole vasocontricts causing BP to decrease and vasodilates causing BP to ____increase.
increase
_____ is the maximum amount of a substance that can be reabsorbed across the tubule epithelium in a given time period.
transport max
With _____ all the nutrients are reabsorbed completely in the PCT.
nutrient reabsorption
____ inhibits PO43 reabsorption in the PCT.
PTH
PTH stimulates Ca2+ reabsorption in _____.
DCT
Individuals with a higher % body fluid correlates to _____.
less fat
Nonelectrolytes have less _____with same concentration .
osmotic pressure
____ occurs when the arterial blood pH is below 7.35.
acidosis
____ occurs when arterial blood pH is above 7.45.
alkalosis
_____ acidosis occurs with severe diahrrhea
metabolic
metabolic alkalosis occurs with excessive ____>
vomitting
_____ (nosebleeds) are common in the respiratory region because the extensive vascular network.
epistaxis
Type I, Type II, and Dust cells are types of ______.
alveolar cells
_____ determined by length and thickness of vocal cords.
range
_____ is determined by amount of tension on vocal folds. (frequency of sound waves)
pitch
______ is determined by force of air passing across vocal cords
loudness
Boyle’s law says if the pressure of the gas decreases, the volume of the container _____.
increases.
Intrapulmonary pressure ____ when inhaling.
decreases
_________ stimulate breathing when there is an increase in H+, PcO2 or a decrease in PO2 levels.
Peripheral chemoreceptors
_______ resistance can be affected by decreased elasticity of lungs, change in bronchiole diameter, or collapse of alveoli
air flow resistance
Carbon dioxide transport is dependent on ____ of CO2 being dissolved as bicarbonate in plasma.
70%
The kidneys form ______, produce/release EPO, regulate ion levels, filter blood and convert into urine.
calcitriol
Glomerular hydrostatic pressure will always be _____ than filtration pressure.
greater ?
Net filtration pressure is influenced by increases in the amount of filtrate formed, increase in solutes and water in tubular fluid, increase in urine, and decrease in _____.
filtrate reabsorption
____ control of the GFR are external to the kidney and involve nervous or hormonal regulation.
extrinsic
Sodium resabsorption involves aldosterone - everything…obligatory …pumps
?
The elimination of drugs and bioactive substance is secreted from blood into the _____.
PCT
During micturition, the detrusor muscle ______.
contracts
When electrolytes (K+) in intracellular fluid (ICF) than ____.
ECF
If there is a fluid imbalance not do to output its due to ____.
fluid sequestration
The thirst center is stimulated by the hypothalmus if ______.
bp is decrease, decreased salivary secrtions, increased blood osmolarity
An imbalance of ____ is lethal.
K+
renin is stimulated in response to low bp and a _____ in everything.
decrease
sympathetic division
increased blood osmolarity initiates ADH so the kidneys increased water reabsorption increases ______ of aquaporins.
number
ANP opposes all other hormones in regulating ______.
fluid output
angiotensin II, ADH, aldosterone
Increased PCO2 above 45 in the arteries is caused by ______.
respiratory acidosis
The ______ line of defense includes physical barriers, secretions, normal flora, mucus, bacteria also inside tracts of the body.
first line of defense - innate
The second line of defense includes neutrophils, macophages, and ____ cells that phagocytize unwanted substances.
dendritc cells
The second innate line fo defense includes basophils, mast cells, and ____.
natural killer cells
maybe not basos
A ____ is a membrane attack complex and it pokes a hole in the plasma membrane causing lysis.
MAC
_____ is an abnormal elevation of body temp of at least 1.8F caused by pyrogens . At the onset blood vessels to constrict. The pyrogens are targeting the hypothalmus and cause prostaglandins to increase the set point. It ends in _____ when the hypothalmus is no longer stimulated by pyrogens.
fever
defervescense
____ immunity is (cell mediated) when T cells differentiate into T helper cells and cytoxic t cells.
cellular immunity
Activation of T cell occurs once T cells bind to its _____.
specific antigen - all answers
The FC region is not involved in inflammation.
?
The primary response with immunolgoic memmory can take 1-2 weeks for the production of anitbodies, but with a secondary response ____.
1 or 2 days to measure in titer
The General adaptation syndrome is also known as the stress response which is a nonspecific response of the body to any ______ made upon it.
demand
The stages of the _____ include the alarm reaction (immediate), stage of resistance (few hours), and the stage of exhaustation (weeks or months).
general adaptation syndrome
Lymphatic capillaries are interspersed throghout areolar tissue among blood cappilary networks except in the red bone marrow, spleen, and ____.
CNS
The _____ surrounds the germinal centers in the lymph nodes and contains t lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells.
mantle zone
Hormones released from hypothalamus stimulate all ap, but ____.
growth hormone
