Chapter 18 Flashcards
Within our bodies is a connective tissue, ________, so valuable that donating a portion of it to someone else can save that person’s life.
blood
____ is regenerated continuously and is responsible for transporting the gases, nutrients, and hormones our bodies need for proper functioning.
blood
Blood is considered a ____ because it contains formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets) and dissolved proteins in a liquid ground substance called ____.
fluid connective tissue
plasma
__ to ___ liters of this blood is continuously pumped through our blood vessels.
4 to 6 liters
Blood is the specialized fluid that is transported through the ______, which is composed of the heart and blood vessels.
cardiovascular system
Blood vessels form a circuit away from the heart and back to the heart that includes arteries, ____, and veins.
capillaries
_____ transport blood away from the heart, whereas ____ transport blood toward the heart.
arteries
veins
____ are permeable, microscopic vessels between arteries and veins. They serve as the sites of exchange between the _____ and ___.
capillaries
blood and body tissues
It is from our capillaries that oxygen and nutrients ___ the blood, and carbon dioxide and cellular wastes ___ the blood.
exit
enter
Blood is composed of ____ and plasma.
formed elements
leukocytes, erythrocytes and platelets
___ function to transport respiratory gases in the blood.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
____ contribute to defending the body against pathogens.
Leukocytes (white blood cells)
____ help clot the blood and prevent blood loss from damaged vessels.
Platelets
_____ is the fluid portion of blood containing plasma proteins and dissolved solutes.
plasma
The three functions of blood.
transportation
regulation
protection
Blood transports formed elements and dissolved molecules and ____ throughout the body.
ions
The ____ that serves as the “delivery system” for the body.
blood
Blood vessels carry oxygen from and carbon dioxide to the lungs, nutrients absorbed from the GI tract, hormones released by ______, and heat and waste products from the _____.
endocrine glands
systemic cells
Even when you take a medication, the ____ delivers it to the cells in the body.
blood
Blood participates in the regulation of body temperature, body pH, and ____.
fluid balance
Blood helps regulation body temperature. This is possible because blood absorbs ____ from body cells, especially skeletal muscle, as it passes through blood vessels of body tissues. ______ is then released from blood at the body surface as blood is transported through blood vessels of the ____.
heat
heat
skin
Blood, because it absorbs acid and base from ____, helps maintain the pH of cells. Blood contains chemical ____ that bind and release hydrogen ions to maintain blood pH until the excess is eliminated from the body.
body cells
buffers
Water is added to the blood from the ____ and lost in numerous ways (urine, sweat, and respired air). There is a constant exchange of fluid between the blood plasma in the capillaries and the interstitial fluid surround the cells of the body’s tissues.
gastrointestinal tract
Blood contains proteins and ions that exert _____ to pull fluid back into the capillaries to help maintain normal fluid balance.
osmotic pressure
Blood contains leukocytes, plasma proteins and various molecules that help ___ the body against potentially harmful substances.
protect
Components of blood, including platelets and plasma proteins, also protect the body against _____.
blood loss
Physical characteristics of blood (6)
color volume viscosity plasma concentration temperature blood pH
The ____ of blood depends upon whether it is oxygen-rich or oxygen-poor.
color
Oxygen-rich blood is _____ or almost ____.
bright red or almost scarlet
Oxygen-poor blood is not blue, rather, a ____.
dark red.
The bluish appearance of our veins can be attributed to both the fact that we can see the blood traveling through the _____ veins in the skin and how ___ is reflected back to the eye from different colors. Lower-energy light wavelengths, like red, are absorbed by the skin and not reflected back tot eh eye, but higher energy wavelengths like blue are reflected back.
superficial
light
The average volume of blood in an adult is ___ liters (L).
5
Males tend to have, on average blood volume, ___ to ___ liters (L). The greater amount of blood in males is due to their larger average size.
5 to 6
Females tend to have, on average blood volume, ___ to ___ liters (L).
4 to 5
Sustaining a normal blood volume is essential in maintaining ____.
blood pressure
Blood is about __ to ___ times more viscous than water, meaning is is thicker.
4 to 5
Viscosity of blood depends upon the amount of _____ in the blood relative to the amount of fluid.
dissolved substances
Viscosity is increased if the amount of substances - primarily _____ - increases, or the amount of fluid decreases or both.
erythrocytes
_____ is the relative concentration of solutes in plasma.
plasma concentration
The plasma concentration is normally a ___ % concentration, and it determines whether fluids move into or out of the plasma by ____ as blood is transported through capillaries.
0.09%
osmosis
The plasma concentration is used to determine _____ concentrations, which are usually isotonic to plasma.
intravenous plasma concentrations (IV)
If an individual is dehydrated, the plasma becomes ____, and fluid moves into the plasma from the surrounding tissues.
hypertonic
The temperature of blood is about ___C higher than measured body temperature.
1 degree C
Body temperature is 37C (98.6F), your blood temp is about ____C ( F), therefore blood warms areas through which it travels.
38C
100.4F
Blood plasma is slightly ____, with a pH between ____ and ____.
alkaline
7.35 and 7.45
Plasma proteins, like all proteins of the body have a three dimensional shape that is dependent upon ___ concentration.
H+
if the pH is altered from the normal range, plasma proteins become ____ and are unable to carry out their functions.
denatured
_____ is both plasma and formed elements, can be separated into its liquid and cellular components by using a _____.
whole blood
centrifuge
A device that spins the sample of blood in a tube so that heavier components collect at the bottom is called a _____.
centrifuge
When using a centrifuge blood separates into three components. Name them from the superior part of the test tube to the inferior portion.
Plasma
buffy coat
Erythrocytes
____ form the lower layer of the centrifuged blood. They typically make up about ____ of a blood sample.
Erythrocytes
44%
A thin ___ makes up the middle layer of centrifuged whole blood. It is a slightly gray-white layer composed of both ___ and _____. This makes up less than ___ of a blood sample.
buffy coat
leukocytes and platelets
1%
Plasma is a straw-colored liquid that rises to the top in the test tube and makes up about ___ of blood.
55%
The percentage of the volume of all formed elements in the blood is called the ______.
hematocrit
Hematocrit values vary somewhat and are dependent upon the ____ and ____ of the individual.
age and sex
A very young child’s hematocrit may vary from ___ to ___, and that range will narrow to ___ to ___ as the child becomes older.
30% to 60%
35% to 50%
Adult males tend to have a hematocrits ranging between ___% and ___%, whereas adult females hematocrits range from ___% to ___%.
42% to 56%
38% to 46%
Males typically have a higher hematocrit because _______ stimulates the kidney to produce the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) which promotes erythrocyte production.
testosterone
An elevated hematocrit may indicate that the patient is either ____ or participating in _____, whereas a lowered hematocrit often suggest the patient is suffering from anemia.
dehydrated
blood doping
All of the components of the formed elements can be viewed by preparing a ____.
blood smear
Not only does the blood contain buffers to help maintain the body’s pH, but the ____ system and ___ system also help to maintain pH.
urinary system
respiratory system
___ are the most numerous of the formed elements.
Erythrocytes
These are anucleate cells and appear as pink or pale purple, bioconcave discs.
erythrocytes
Leukocytes are larger than _____.
erythrocytes
The nucleus is very noticeable in ____.
leukocytes
Platelets appear as small _____ of cells.
fragments
Plasma is composed primarily of water, about ___% of its volume), plasma proteins, and other solutes including electrolytes, nutrients, respiratory gases, and wastes.
92%
Plasma is an ____ because it is fluid found outside of cells.
extracellular fluid (ECF)
Plasma is similar to interstitial fluid, in that both have similar concentrations of electrolytes, nutrients and waste products. however of the most significant differences is that _____ is higher in plasma than in the interstitial fluid.
protein concentration
Blood is considered a ___ because it contains proteins in the plasma.
colloid
Plasma proteins include albumin, globulins, ____ and other clotting proteins, and regulatory proteins such as enzymes and some _____.
fibrinogen
hormones
____, alpha and beta globulins, and both fibrinogen and other proteins involved in clotting are produced in the ___.
albumin
liver
Plasma proteins such as ____-globulins and regulatory proteins, are produced by _____ and other organs, respectively.
gamma
leukocytes
Collectively, these plasma proteins exert osmotic pressure and present the loss of fluid from the blood as it moves through the _____.
capillaries
Osmotic pressure exerted by plasma proteins is called _____.
colloid osmotic pressure
The ____ is responsible for drawing fluids into the blood and preventing excess fluid loss from blood capillaries into the ICF, thus helping to maintain blood volume and consequently _____.
osmotic pressure
blood pressure
If plasma protein levels _____, such as might occur due to liver disease (resulting in decreased production of ______) or kidney damage (resulting in increased elimination of plasma proteins, colloid osmotic pressure also ____. This decrease results in fluid loss from the blood and fluid retention in the interstitial space.
decrease
plasma proteins
decreases
____ are the smallest and most abundant of the plasma proteins, making up approximately ____ of plasma proteins.
Albumins
58%
Because albumin is the most abundant type of plasma protein, it exerts the greatest _____ to maintain blood volume and blood pressure.
colloid osmotic pressure
Albumins act as transport proteins that carry ions, hormones, and some ____ in the blood.
lipids
_____ are the second largest group of plasma proteins, forming about ___% of all plasma proteins.
Globulins
37%
The smaller ____ and the larger ____ primarily bind and transport certain water-insoluble molecules and hormones, some metal, and ions.
alpha-globulins
beta-globulins
____ are also called immunoglobulins, or ____, which play a part in the body’s defenses.
Gamma-globulins
antibodies
_____ makes up about 4% of all plasma proteins.
Fibrinogen
Fibrinogen as well as other clotting proteins are responsible for ____ formation.
blood clot
Following trauma to the walls of blood vessels, fibrinogen is converted into long, insoluble strands of fibrin, which help form a _____.
blood clot
When the clotting proteins are removed from plasma, the remaining fluid is termed _____.
serum
____ proteins form a very minor class of plasma proteins (less than 1% of total plasma proteins).
regulatory
Regulatory proteins include both ____ to accelerate chemical reactions in the blood and ______ being transported throughout the body to target cells.
enzymes
hormones
Blood is also considered a ____ because it contains dissolved ions as well as organic and inorganic molecules
solution
The organic and inorganic molecules in the blood include ___, nutrients, gases, and waste products.
electroylytes
Common molecules found in blood plasma.
glucose
amino acids
lactate
lipids
Electrolytes in arterial plasma
sodium potassium calcium hydrogen chloride bicarbonate phosphate
normal ranges for sodium in arterial plasma
35-145 milliequivalents per liter
normal ranges of potassium in arterial plasma
3.5-5.0 mEq/L
normal ranges of calcium in arterial plasma
8.4 - 10.2 mg/dL
normal ranges of hydrogen in arterial plasma
pH 7.35-7.45
normal ranges of chloride in arterial plasma
96-106 mEq/L
normal ranges of bicarbonate in arterial plasma
23.1 - 26.7 mEq/L
normal ranges of phosphate in arterial plasma
2.5-4.1 mEq/L
function of sodium in arterial plasma
neuron and muscle function; fluid balance; contransporter
function of potassium in arterial plasma
neuron and muscle function
function of calcium in arterial plasma
hardens bone, release of neurotransmitter, muscle contraction, blood clotting, second messenger
function of hydrogen in arterial plasma
pH Balance
normal range of glucose in blood plasma
fasting 70 -100 mg/dL; 2 hours after a meal :
normal range of lactate
4.5 - 14.4 mg/dL
normal range of cholesterol
100 - 200 mg/dL
normal range of HDL
40-80 mg/dL
normal range of VLDL/LDL
10-100 mg/dL
normal range of Triglycerides
30-149 mg/dL
normal range of phopholipids
6-12 mg/dL
function of chloride in arterial plasma
anion bound to sodium; component of gastric acid (HCl); chloride shift
function of bicarbonate in blood plasma
pH balance
function of phosphate in blood plasma
binds with calcium and deposited in bone
fuel molecule for cellular respiration (primary energy source for nervous tissue); tightly regulated by a number of hormones, including insulin and glucagon
glucose found in blood plasma
monomers for synthesizing protein; also regulated by some of the same hormones as glucose
amino acids in blood plasma
by product of glycolysis
lactate
molecules that generally do not dissolve in water
lipids
plasma membrane component; synthesis of steroid hormones; bile salts
cholesterol
transport lipids to the liver
HDL
transport lipids from the liver
VLDL/LDL
fuel molecules
triglycerides
molecules that form plasma membrane bilayer
phospholipids
Formed elements have a relatively short life span; new ones are continually produced by the process of _____, also called _______.
hemopoiesis, hematopoiesis
The red bone marrow (____ tissue) is responsible for hemopoiesis.
myeloid
Hemopoiesis occurs in most bones in young children, but as an individual reaches adulthood, hemopoiesis is _____to selected bones primarily in the axial skeleton.
restricted
The process of hemopoiesis starts with hemopoietic stem cells called _____.
hemocytoblasts
Hemocytoblasts are considered ___ cells, meaning that they can differentiate and develop into many different kinds of cells.
pluripotent
Hemocytoblasts produce two different lines for blood cell development: 1) the ___ line forms erythrocytes, all leukocytes except lympohcytes, and megakaryoctes. 2) the ____ line forms only lymphocytes.
myeloid
lymphoid
The maturation and division of hemopoietic stem cells is influenced by ________, or colony-forming units (CFUs).
colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)
CSFs or CFUs are molecules that are all growth factors, except for _____, which is a hormone.
erythropoietin
Erythocytes make up more than ____% of formed elements with a concentration between 4.2 and 6.2 million per cubic millimeter.
99%
The process of erythrocyte production is called ______.
erythropoiesis
Normally, erythrocytes are produced at the rate of about _____ per second.
3 million
The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) controls the rate of production by _____ the rate of erythorocytes formation.
increasing
Dietary requirements for normal erythropoiesis include iron, ____, and amino acids.
vitamin b
The process of erythropoiesis begins with a ______, which under the influence of multi-CSF forms a progenitor cell.
myeloid stem cell
The progenitor cell forms a _______, which is a large, nucleated cell.
proerythroblast
The proerythroblast becomes an ____, which is a slightly smaller cell that is producing hemoglobin in its cytosol.
erythroblast
The next stage of erythropoiesis is called a ____, is a still smaller cell with more hemoglobin the cytosol; its nucleus has been ejected.
normoblast
A cell called a ______ eventually is formed which has lost all organelles except some ribosomes, so it can continue to produce hemoglobin (through protein synthesis).
reticulocyte
The transformation from myeloid stem cell to reticulocyte takes about ___ days.
5 days
Some reticulocytes finish maturation while circulating in blood vessels and in normal circumstances, make up 0.5 - 2% of the ______.
circulating blood.
One to two days after entering the circulation, the reticulocyte degenerate, and the reticulocyte becomes a ______.
mature erythrocyte
Without a nucleus and cellular organelles, the mature erythrocyte is essentially a plasma membrane “bag” containing ____.
hemoglobin
Leukocytes make up less than _____ of formed elements with a concentration between 4500 and 11,000 per cubic meter.
0.01%
The production of leukocytes is called ______.
leukopoiesis
Leukopoiesis involves three different types of maturation processes: granulocyte maturation, monocyte maturation, and _____ maturation
lymphocyte
All three types of granulocytes (_____, _____, _____) are derived from a myeloid stem cell.
neutrophils
basophils
eosinophils
A myeloid stem cell is stimulated by multi-CSF and GM-CSF to form a ____ cell.
progenitor
The granulocyte line develops when the progenitor cell forms a _____ under the influence of G-CSF.
myeloblast
The myeloblast ultimately differentiates into one of the three types of ____.
granulocytes
Like granulocytes, monocytes are also derived from a _____.
myeloid stem cell
The myeloid stem cell differentiates into a ____ cell and under the influence of M-CSF this cell forms a _____. This is the monocyte line.
progenitor cell
monoblasts
Eventually, the monoblast forms a promonocyte that differentiates and matures into a _____.
monocyte
Lymphocytes are derived from a lymphoid stem cell through the _______.
lymphoid line
The lymphoid stem cell differentiates into ______ and _______.
B-lymphoblasts
T-lymphoblasts
B-lymphoblasts mature into B-lymphocytes, whereas T-lymphoblasts mature into _______.
T-lymphocytes
Some lymphoid stem cells differentiate directly into a natural killer (_____) cells.
NK
Platelets are also called ___.
thrombocytes
Thrombocytes make up less than ___% of formed elements with a concentration between 150,000 and 400,000 per cubic millimeter.
1%
The production of platelets is called _____.
thrombopoiesis
During thrombopoiesis, the myeloid stem cell, a committed cell called a ______ is produced.
megakaryoblast
Megakaryoblasts matures under the influence of thrombopoietin to form a _______.
megakaryocyte
Megakaryocytes are easily distinguished both by their large size and their ____, _____ nucleus. Each megakaryocyte then produces _____ of thrombocytes.
dense, multilobed
thousands
The process of how megakaryoctes produce thrombocytes was in question until 2007. Researchers reported that megakaryoctes produce _____ from themselves called proplatelets. While still attached to the megakaryoctye, these proplatelets extreough the blood vessel wall in the ____. The force from the blood flow “___” these proplatelets into the fragments we know as platelets (thrombocytes)
long extension
red bone marrow
slices
____ are very small, flexible cells, with a diameter of approximately 7.5 um.
erythrocytes
Although, erythrocytes are commonly referred to as red blood cells or RBCs, the term “red blood cell” is a misnomer because a mature erythrocyte lacks a ____ and ____.
nucleus and cellular organelles
