Chapter 29 Flashcards
The _____ begins with fertilization and ends approximately 38 weeks later with birth
prenatal period
The prenatal period includes the ____, _____, and the _____.
pre-embryonic (germinal) period
embryonic period
fetal period
The ____ period is the first 2 weeks, fertilization to implantation in uterine wall.
pre-embryonic period
Fertilization —-> ____ —–> blastocyst
zygote
The ____ takes place during weeks 3-8, organ development
embryonic period
The _____ is the last 30 weeks, organ complexity increases
fetal period
____ is the process by which two gametes fuse to form a new diploid cell containing genes from both parents
fertilization (phase 1)
Fetilization takes place in the _____ or the uterine tube.
ampulla
Sperm undergo _____ upon entry into the female reproductive system.
capacitation
_____ is when glycoproteins and proteins removed from plasma membrane that covers acromosomal region
capacitation
During phase 1 of fertilization sperm penetrates the ____.
cornona radiata
During phase 1 of fertilization the oocyte releases _________ attracting sperm to its location
chemotaxic chemicals
Once sperm reach the oocyte they push through the corona radiata using _____.
their flagellum
During phase 2 of fertilization there is a release of digestive enzymes from acrosome needed to penetrate the zona pellucida called ______.
acrosome reaction
Once a sperm gets through the zona pellucida, it then _____ to prevent other sperm from entering
hardens
_____ is when an egg is fertilized with two or more sperm.
polyspermy
Polyspermy can be _____ because too many chromosomes.
fatal
Sperm undergoes acrosome reaction and penetrates ______ during phase 2 of fertilization.
zona pellucida
During phase 3 of fertilization sperm and oocyte ______ fuse, the sperm nucleus enters the cytosol of the secondary oocyte. The midpiece and _____ degenerate.
plasma membranes
flagellum
During the 3rd phase of fertilization the secondary oocyte completes the _____ division and forms an ovum
second meiotic
During the 3rd phase of the fertilization the sperm and ovum pronuclei then fuse forming a single diploid cell called a _____.
zygote
The zygote is a single _____.
diploid cell
A series of mitotic divisions resulting in an increase in cell number, but not an increase in the overall size of the structure is called ______.
cleavage
At the 16-cell stage (4 divisions) the zygote is called a _____ and enters the ______ of the uterus.
morula
lumen
Zona pelludica starts to degenerate allowing fluid to enter the morula forming a fluid filled cavity is the formation of the _____.
blastocyst
____ starts to degenerate allowing fluid to enter the morula forming a fluid filled cavity during blastocyst formation.
zona pelludica
a blastocyst and has two distinct components: ______ and _______.
trophoblast
embryoblast
The ____ is the outer ring of cells surrounding fluid filled cavity.
trophoblast
The ______ is the inner cell mass located within one side of the blastocyst
embryoblast
The process by which the blastocyst burrows into and embeds within the endometrium is called ____.
implantation
During implantation around day 7, trophoblast cells invade the _____ and then divide into two layers.
functional layer
The trophoblast cells divide into two layers, _________ and __________ after they invade the functional layer during implantation.
cytotrophoblast
syncytiotrophoblast
_____ is the inner cellular layer formed when the trophoblast cells divide during implantation.
cytotrophoblast
_____ is the outer, thick layer formed when the trophoblast cells invade the functional layer and divide. This is where the cells _____ into the functional layer.
syncytiotrophoblast
burrow
By day 9 of implantation the ____ has completely burrowed into the uterine wall.
blastocyst
_____ is produced by the syncytiotrophoblast
HCG
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin hormone
HCG is produced by the ______.
syncytiotrophoblast
HCG signals corpus luteum to continue secreting ________ to thicken and maintain uterine lining.
estrogen/progesterone
____ levels high enough detected in woman’s urine after second week of development.
HCG
HCG levels remain high for the first ____ months and then decline.
three
The _____ degenerates once HCG levels drop. At this point estrogen/progesterone is secreted by the ____.
corpus luteum
placenta
By day 8, embryoblast differentiates into two layers: _______ and _______.
hypoblast
epiblast
The ____ forms into the yolk sac.
hypoblast
The ____ forms into amnion.
epiblast
Hypoblast + epiblast =’s ________
bilaminar germinal disc
Bilaminar germinal disc and trophoblast produce ________.
extraembryonic membranes
The _____ protects the embryo.
extraembryonic membranes
The _____ assist in vital functions such as nutrition and gas exchange as well as removal and storage of _____.
extraembryonic membranes
waste materials.
The ____ is the first membrane to develop.
yolk sac
The _____ is an important site for early blood cell and blood vessel formation.
yolk sac
The _____ eventually encloses the entire embryo in a fluid-filled sac called the amniotic cavity.
amnion
The ____ is formed from both cytotrophoblast cells and syncytiotrophoblast
chorion
The ____ blend with functional layer of endometrium and eventually forms the placenta
chorion
The chorion blend with functional layer of endometrium and eventually forms the ____.
placenta
The function of the _____ is to exchange of nutrients, waste products, and respiratory gases between the maternal and fetal blood.
placenta
Transmission of maternal antibodies to the developing embryo or fetus occurs in the ____.
placenta
The _____ produces of estrogen and progesterone to maintain and build the uterine lining.
placenta
The placenta begins to form during the ____ of development.
2nd week
The chorion forms ____ portion and ____ layer of uterus forms maternal portion.
fetal
functional
Early organism connected to the placenta via the ______, which eventually forms the umbilical cord
connecting stalk
____ form from the chorion.
chorionic villi
The chorion villi contain branches of _____.
umbillical vessels
The chorionic villi are surrounded by ______ which contains maternal blood.
endometerium
Fetal blood and maternal blood ___, but bloodstreams so are so close they allow for the exchanges of gases and nutrients.
do not mix unless something goes wrong
Alcohol, drugs, ___, bacteria, and ____ from smoking can pass through placental barrier as well.
viruses
toxins
The ___ period takes place from weeks 3 thru 8.
embryonic
____ is the establishment of primary germ layers.
gastrulation
_____ is the formation of specific tissues and organs from the primary germ layers.
organogenesis
The _____ period involves gastrulation and organogenesis
embryonic
By week ___ the embryo has a beating heart.
week 4
By week ____ the main organ systems have been established.
8
____ is the process by which the cells of the epiblast migrate and form the three primary germ layers.
gastrulation
The three primary germ layers
ectoderm
mesoderm
endoderm
The formation of germ layers forms an ____.
embryo
During gastrulation, the cells from epiblast migrate through ______ to the area between the epiblast and hypoblast forming the ______
primitive streak
endoderm
During gastrulation more epiblast cells migrate and form the ____.
mesoderm
Remaining cells of the epiblast form the _______.
ectoderm
An ____ is a flattened, disc-shaped structure.
embryonic disc
In the late 3rd to 4th weeks, ____ transforms shape.
embryonic disc
Certain regions of the embryo grow ____ than others causing folding.
faster
The two types of folding caused by faster growth in regions of the embryo are ______ and ______.
cephalocaudal
transverse
Folding that occurs in the cephalic and caudal regions of the embryo is ____ folding.
cephalocaudal
Amnion grows very quickly but ___ does not grow at all during cephalocaudal folding.
yolk sac
____ folding forms the future head and buttocks region.
cephalocaudal
Left and right sides of the embryo curve and migrate toward the midline during ______
transverse folding
During transverse folding sides fuse in midline to create a ______ embryo creating the trunk/torso region.
cylindrical
During transverse folding the ____ is pinched off from most of the endoderm except one small region called the ____.
yolk sac
vitelline duct
_____ now solely along entire exterior embryo and endoderm confined to the internal region during transverse folding.
Ectoderm
____ forms nervous tissue and sensory organs.
ectoderm
_____ forms the epidermis and it’s derivatives. What are examples?
Ectoderm
hair, nails, sweat glands, mammary glands
____ forms the enamel of the teeth.
ectoderm
______ forms muscle and connective tissues.
mesoderm
______ forms the dermis.
mesoderm
_____ forms the pituitary gland.
ectoderm
_____ forms the lens of the eye.
ectoderm
_____ forms the adrenal medulla.
ectoderm
_____ forms kidneys.
mesoderm
_____ forms ureters.
mesoderm
______ forms reproductive system.
mesoderm
_____ forms spleen.
mesoderm
____ forms serous membranes.
mesoderm
____ forms adrenal cortex.
mesoderm
_____ forms the heart.
mesoderm
____ forms the reproductive system.
mesoderm
The ____ forms tympanic cavity and auditory tube.
endoderm
_____ forms the lining of the GI tract.
endoderm
_____ forms the respiratory tract
endoderm
____ forms the urinary tract.
endoderm
____ forms the reproductive tract.
endoderm
_____ forms the liver.
endoderm
_____ forms the gallbladder.
endoderm
_____ forms the pancreas.
endoderm
_____ forms the palatine tonsils.
endoderm
____ forms the thyroid and parathyroid glands.
endoderm
____ forms the thymus.
endoderm
_____ is the rudimentary forming of most organ systems have developed by week 8.
organogenesis
____ are substances that cause birth defects.
teratogens
Organogenesis is sensitive to ____.
teratogens
The fetal period extends from week ____ to birth.
fetal
During the fetal period maturation of ____ and organs occurs. (rapid growth of the body)
tissues
During the fetal period the embryo will grow from 1 inch to an average length of _____ by birth.
21 inches
The average weight of a full term fetus is ____ lbs.
5.5 - 9.9 lbs
There are ____ trimesters during pregnancy.
three.
During the first three months called the ____ trimester a zygote turns into an _____ then into a fetus.
first
embryo
The second trimester lasts from months ____.
4-6
During the second trimester there is growth of the fetus and ____.
maternal tissues
The third trimester lasts from ____ months.
7-9
During the 3rd trimester there is rapid growth of fetus as mothers body prepares for the eventual _____.
labor and delivery
HCG hormone changes
Secreted by blastocyst after implantation
Maintains the corpus luteum (continues to secrete progesterone / estrogen)
*Maintains and builds uterine lining
Levels remain high during first trimester then drop off
*Corpus luteum degenerates as well
Estrogen/Progesterone Hormone Changes
After first trimester, secreted by placenta
High levels suppress FSH and LH secretion, so the ovarian cycle is arrested
Facilitate uterine enlargement, mammary gland enlargement and fetal growth
Effect integumentary system: faster-growing and stronger nails, hair tends to be fuller and thicker
The change in _____ levels is responsible for the for relaxation of ligamentous joints such as sacroiliac joints and ____
estrogen
pubic symphysis
The change in _____ is responsible for Responsible for functional layer growth and prevention of menstruation.
progesterone
The change in progesterone is responsible for ______ and prevention of menstruation.
functional layer growth
The change in progesterone is responsible for functional layer growth and _______.
prevention of menstruation
The change in estrogen levels is responsible for the for relaxation of ________ such as sacroiliac joints and pubic sympysis
ligamentous joints
During pregnancy ___ is secreted by the corpus luteum and the placenta.
relaxin
During pregnancy relaxin promotes ____ growth in the uterus.
blood vessel growth
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is normally secreted by the _____, which stimulates ACTH release from AP.
hypothlamus
The ______ secretes large amounts of CRH during pregnancy.
placenta
_____ is believed to play a role in length of pregnancy and timing of childbirth.
CRH
CRH causes an increase in _____ levels which promotes fluid retention and can lead to edema.
aldosterone
Human chorionic thyrotropin (HCT) is similar to ____.
TSH
_____ is secreted by the placenta.
Human chorionic thyrotropin (HCT)
HCT stimulates the release of ______ increasing mothers metabolic rate.
thyroid hormones
HCT stimulates the release of thyroid hormones increasing the ______.
mothers metabolic rate
human placental lactogen (HPL) is secreted by the ______.
placenta
The HPL causes the mother to metabolize more _____, saving glucose for the fetus.
fatty acids
Human placental lactogen (HPL) inhibits ____. leaving more glucose in blood fro the fetus.
insulin
____ levels increase from the 5th week till max levels at week 36.
Human placental lactogen (HPL)
_____ is produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.
oxytocin
_____ is involved in uterine contractions.
oxytocin
Oxytocin is involved in _____ from mammary glands.
milk expulsion
____ levels increase during the 2nd and 3rd trimester in response to rising estrogen levels and peak during ____.
oxytocin
labor
Prolactin is secreted by the ________.
anterior pituitary gland
_____ is responsible for milk production.
prolactin
Prolactin levels increase ____ during pregnancy to ensure lactation occurs after birth.
10 fold
Prior to pregnancy the uterus measures ____.
8 cm by 5 cm
After implantation, the uterus enlarges due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of its ______.
muscular layer
After implantation, the uterus englarges due to ______ and ____ of its muscular layer.
hypertrophy and hyperplasia
Four weeks after fertilization, uterine enlargement can be detected during a _____.
vaginal exam
By week ____ the uterus is the size of a large grapefruit.
12
By week ___ the uterus is expanded to abdominal cavity and fundus is midpoint level between pubic symphysis and umbilicus
16
By week ____ the fundus reaches the level of the umbilicus
22
By week 22 the fundus is superior to the ____.
umbillicus
By the ____, the fundus is at the level of the xiphoid process of the sternum.
9th month
The enlarged uterus pushes against eh diaphragm and compresses many of the _____.
abdominopelvic organs
______ causes mother to metabolize more fatty acids instead of glucose
HPL
Estrogen/progesterone/HPL cause increased ______ and can lead to gestational diabetes.
insulin resistance
Morning sickness is caused by two theories: high levels of hormones primarily _____. Also an evolutionary adaption to ____ the developing fetus from harmful toxins in certain foods (____).
HCG
protect
protein
Heartburn, indigestion and _____ can also occur during pregnancy.
hemorrhoids
Folic acid, calcium, _____, andiron are especially important during pregnancy.
protein
____ lbs normal weight gain due to fetus, placenta, breast and uterine enlargement as well as fluid retention.
20 lbs
A cardiovasuclar change is the plasma volume increases by about ___
50%
More blood is needed to transport _______ to both the mother and fetus.
nutrients/respiratory gases
A cardiovascular change due to the increased plasma volume causes an increase in cardiac output by _____.
(30-50%)
An increase of cardiac output begins at week ____ and peaks around weeks ____.
6
24-28
Increased cardiac output is caused by increased _______.
heart rate and stroke volume
Increased blood volume initially increases blood pressure during the _____ trimester, but it drops by the ______ trimester.
first
second
______ from lower body is impaired by third trimester due to uterus and fetus compressing abdominal blood vessels
Venous return
Impairment of the venous return from the lower body in the third trimester can cause ___ in the lower limbs, varicose veins and hemorrhoids.
edema
During the later part of pregnancy, expanding uterus prevents _____ from fully descending, keeping the lungs from ______
diaphragm
fully expanding
_____ is an uncomfortable awareness of breathing
Dyspnea
Increased estrogen increases the fluid within the______, as well as an increased blood flow causing congestion and _____ (nose bleeds)
nasal mucosa
epistaxis
Increased estrogen causing increased blood flow causing ____ and ______.
congestion
epistaxis
Progesterone increases sensitivity of chemoreceptors to ________.
blood CO2 levels
Increased levels of progesterone lead to an increase in tidal volume and pulmonary ventilation by _____
30-40%
Increased levels of progesterone lead to an increase in breathing rate, increasing the mothers ______
oxygen consumption
Progesterone increases ____.
breathing rate
Progesterone causes a ____ in CO2 blood levels which facilitates the diffusion of gases across the placenta.
decrease
The urinary system is responsible for eliminating her metabolic waste products as well as the waste products from the ____.
fetus
Since there is 50% more plasma volume, there is an increase in filtering by the _____ as well
kidneys
GFR has to increase by ______ to keep up.
30-50%
First and third trimesters uterus expansion can lead to __________ causing increased diuresis (urination)
pressure on the bladder
During pregnancy there are higher rates of UTI due to _____ and ____ being compresses by the uterus.
ureters and kidneys
During pregnancy there are higher rates of UTIs because ______ causes smooth muscle relaxation which can cause uretal and renal pelvic cilation. (ureters store more urine causing ______).
progesterone
urine stasis
Labor is also known as ________.
parturition
____ is the physical expulsion of the fetus and placenta from the uterus.
labor
_____ is labor that occurs prior to 38 weeks.
premature labor
_____ are contractions (braxton-hicks) are not strong enough to results in the three stages of True labor.
false labor
Initiation of labor
Increasing levels of estrogen:
Counteract the relaxing nature of progesterone on the myometrium
Cause more oxytocin receptors to appear on the myometrium causing an increase in oxytocin release from the PP
Uterine myometrium becomes more sensitive and contractions begin
Weak contractions can start as early as the ____, they get stronger in the later stages.
2nd trimester
Increasing levels of estrogen counteract the relaxing nature of _____ on the myometrium during the intiation of labor.
progesterone
Increasing levels of estrogen cause more oxytocin receptors to appear on the myometrium causing an increase in oxytocin ______.
release from the PP
______ is when uterine contractions that increase in intensity and regulatory and that results in changes to the cervix
true labor
______ levels increase, not only from the mother but from the ______ as well and true labor begins
ocytocin
fetus
Oxytocin stimulates the release of _______ from the placenta
prostaglandins
Prostaglandins stimulates smooth _____ and soften and dilate the cervix.
contractions
Prostaglandins stimulates smooth contraction and ______ the cervix.
soften and dilate
Oxytocin, _____ and prostaglandins cause the rhythmic contractions of true labor
estrogen
Oxytocin, estrogen and ______ cause the rhythmic contractions of true labor
prostaglandins
Oxytocin, estrogen and prostaglandins cause the rhythmic contractions of true labor increase in frequency and ____ over time.
intensity
During true labor pain radiates from lower back to the upper abdomen and does not change in response to _____ of the mother’s positin.
movement
During true labor pain radiates from ____ to ____.
lower back
upper abdomen
Contractions facilitate ______ and expulsion of fetus and placenta
cervical dilation
Contractions facilitate cervical dilation and ____________.
expulsion of fetus and placenta
The positive feedback cycle of labor
slide 36
Initiation of True labor is a _____ mechanism.
positive feedback
Positive feedback mechanism
Positive feedback mechanism
Contractions intensify causing fetus’s head to push against the cervix
This stimulates the stretching and dilation of the cervix
This stimulates the release of more oxytocin
Contractions also stimulate the placenta to secrete more prostaglandins
End of positive feedback is when the fetus and placenta are expelled from the body
End of positive feedback is when the _____ are expelled from the body.
fetus and placenta are expelled from the body
True labor has three stages:
dilation, expulsion, placental
Dilation stage begins with the onset of regulation contractions and ends when the cervix is _____ and dilated to 10 centimeters.
effaced (thinned)
The longest of the three stages of true labor.
dilation stage
______ are women who have never given birth before, tend to be in this stage longer (8-24 hours)
Nulliparous women
Dilation stage
____ have given birth before, the ______ stage lasts from 4-12 hours.
parous women
dilation stage
During the ____ stage the amniotic sac releases the amniotic fluid (water breaking)
dilation stage
The ____ stage begins with the complete dilation of the cervix and ends with the expulsion of the fetus (may last minutes to hours)
expulsion
The expulsion stage begins with the complete dilation of the cervix and ends with the ________
expulsion of the fetus (may last minutes to hours)
Nulliparous again will typically have a longer ___ stage than parous women.
expulsion stage
_____ is the first part of the baby’s head distends from the vagina.
crowning
_____ is when the perineal muscles are surgically incised to create a wider opening for the baby to pass through.
episiotomy
Once the baby’s body is fully exprelled the umbilical cord is ______.
clamped and tied off
The _____ stage occurs after the baby is expelled.
placental stage
During the placental stage the uterus contracts to ________ as well as expels the placenta and remaining fetal membranes (afterbirth)
compresses uterine blood vessels
During the placental stage the uterus contracts to compress uterine blood vessels as well as ______
expels the placenta and remaining fetal membranes (afterbirth)
The ____ stage typically occurs within 20 minutes after expulsion phase.
placental
Prolactin, released from the AP, is inhibited from being released in non-pregnant women and in men by the release of _____
dopamine
During pregnancy, high levels of estrogen influences the secretion of _____
prolactin
Increased estrogen and prolactin cause ________ proliferation and branching of the lactiferous ducts
mammary gland acini
Increased estrogen and prolactin cause mammary gland acini proliferation and _______
branching of the lactiferous ducts
Milk isn’t released until ______, when estrogen and progesterone levels drop
after birth
Milk isn’t released until after birth, when ______ and _______ levels drop
estrogen
progesterone
At end of pregnancy and first few days after birth, substance produced isn’t breast milk, but ______
colostrum
______ has a lower concentration of fat than true breast milk and is rich in immunoglobulins (IgA)
colostrum
Colostrum has a _____ effect and facilitates the infants first bowel movement.
laxative
True breast milk produced a few days postpartum and has a ____ fat content than colostrum, several growth factors, essential fatty acids, _______ and an array of immunoglobulins
higher
specific enzymes to aid in digestion
Human colosrum has less protein then cow’s milk, but more than ____.
human breast milk
____ is needed for milk production while _____is needed for milk secretion.
prolactin
oxytocin
Milk production is a ______ —> prolactin is secreted every time the baby feeds.
positive feedback mechanism
_____ is the release of breast.
milk letdown
Milk Let down positive feedback cycle
Oxytocin released when baby feeds (mechanoreceptors in areola/nipple)
Stimulates the myoepithelial cells that surround the acini to contract forcing the milk from the breast
This ends when the baby stops feeding
Breast feeding cycle
slide 44
