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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY II > Chapter 17 > Flashcards

Chapter 17 Flashcards

1
Q

________ are ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to aid in homeostasis

A

Endocrine glands

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2
Q

______ are chemical messengers that initiate a change in a target cell

A

hormones

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3
Q

_________ have specific receptors for specific hormones

A

target cells

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4
Q

Similarities of Nervous vs Endocrine

A
  • Both respond to stimuli by releasing a ligand (neurotransmitter, hormone)
  • The ligands bind receptors on target cells causing a cellular response
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5
Q

Differences of Nervous vs Endocrine

A
  • NS controls a specific location in the body by way of the neuron while ES releases hormone into the bloodstream thus causing a widespread response throughout body
  • NS effect is rapid and short lived while the ES has a long response time and long lasting effect
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6
Q

A function of the endocrine is regulating development, growth, and metabolism. Through cell division and _____ (during growth) and both anabolic and catabolic processes.

A

differentiation

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7
Q

A function of the endocrine system is maintaining homeostasis of blood composition and volume. Regulation of blood glucose, _____, ions (Na+, K+, etc) as well as the formed elements.

A

amino acids

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8
Q

A function of the endocrine system is controlling digestive process that influence ______ and movement.

A

secretory processes

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9
Q

An endocrine function is controlling reproductive activities that affect development, function, and ____.

A

sexual behaviors.

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10
Q

Endocrine tissue and gland are both composed of _____ tissue that release hormones, supported by a ____ tissue framework.

A

epithelial tissue

connective

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11
Q

Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands are all.

A

endocrine organs

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12
Q

single organ, entirely endocrine in function

A

endocrine organs

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13
Q

secretory cells housed in small clusters within organ that have some other primary functions

A

endocrine tissues

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14
Q

hypothalamus, skin, thyums, heart, liver, stomach, pancreas, small intestines, adipose tissue, kidneys and gonads

A

endocrine tissues

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15
Q

3 steps of hormone synthesis and release

A
  1. hormonal stimulation
  2. humoral stimulation
  3. nervous system stimulation
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16
Q

the release of hormone in response to another hormone

A

hormonal stimulation

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17
Q

the release of hormone in response to changes in a level of nutrient or ion in the blood

A

humoral stimulation

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18
Q

the release of the hormone in response to stimulation by the nervous system.

A

nervous system stimulation

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19
Q

physiological effects a result of hormone blood concentrations

A

blood hormone regulation

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20
Q

Two factors that influence blood hormone concentration

A

hormone synthesis

hormone elimination

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21
Q

amount of time necessary to reduce the hormone concentration within the blood to one half of what had originally been secreted

A

half life

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22
Q

Hormones are grouped according to ____.

A

chemical structures

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23
Q

Three general categories of hormones

A

steroids
biogenic amines
proteins

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24
Q

____ are water soluble and the most common type of hormones

A

proteins

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25
Q

Hormone elimination can happen in 2 different ways; via enzymatic degradation (liver) and removal from blood through ________

A

excretion by kidneys or uptake by target cells.

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26
Q

Water-soluable hormones have a ____ half-life.

A

short (few minutes or less)

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27
Q

____ have the longest half-life.

A

steroids

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28
Q

_____ (a steroid) can last up to ____ days.

A

testosterone

12

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29
Q

_____ are lipid-soluble molecules synthesized from cholesterol.

A

steroids

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30
Q

_____ are water-soluble (except thyroid hormones), modified amino acids also called monoamines.

A

biogenic amines

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31
Q

estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, corticosteroids (cortisol) and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

A

types of steroids

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32
Q

catecholamine’s (epi and nor-epi), thyroid hormones and melatnonin (pineal)

A

types of biogenic amines

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33
Q

formed from cholesterol

A

steroids

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34
Q

derived from amino acid that is modified.

A

biogenic amines

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35
Q

_____ are signaling molecules that do not circulate within blood.

A

local hormones

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36
Q

____ are the primary local hormone.

A

eicosanoids

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37
Q

Three types of ____ are: prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes.

A

eicosanoids

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38
Q

______ are the most diverse ______, stimulate pain receptors, reduce fever, and increase inflammatory response.

A

Prostaglandins are the most diverse Eicosandoid

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39
Q

Aspirin, ibuprofen and other NSAIDs block the formation of _____.

A

prostaglandins

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40
Q

hormone works on the same cell secreted from

A

autocrine stimulation

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41
Q

hormone works on neighboring cell to secretory cell

A

paracrine stimulation

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42
Q

What three things can stimulate hormone release?

A

another hormone
changes in an ion concentration
nervous stimulation

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43
Q

What are the three types of hormones?

A

steroids
biogenic amines
proteins

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44
Q

What is a local hormone?

A

One that doesn’t release into the blood but instead works on local cells

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45
Q

Lipid soluble hormones require _____ carrier proteins synthesized by the liver.

A

water-soluble carrier proteins

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46
Q

Carrier proteins can be ___ or ____.

A

specific (thyroxine-binding) or

nonselective (albumin)

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47
Q

Lipid soluble hormones

A

steroids
calcitriol
thyroid hormone (TH)

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48
Q

Water soluble amines

A 
proteins
biogenic amines (except TH)
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49
Q

About ___ or lipid soluble hormones that are unbound are able to exit the blood and bind receptors of target organs.

A

1 - 10%

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50
Q

About ____ lipid soluble hormones are bound, readily available source to maintain homeostasis.

A

90-99%

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51
Q

_____ hormones do not require carrier proteins.

A

water-soluble hormones

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52
Q

Lipid soluble hormones are ___, ____ molecules that are lipophilic.

A

small

nonpolar

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53
Q

Lipid soluble hormones diffuse ____ through plasma membrane.

A

directly

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54
Q

Lipid soluble hormones bind receptors within the cytosol/nucleus of the cell to form a ______. They then bind sections of DNA called ______, which causes the transcription of a specific mRNA and thus the synthesis of a specific protein. This results in either an alteration in cell structure (growth) or a shift in the cell’s metabolic activities (if the new protein is an _____)

A

hormone-receptor complex (HRC)
hormone-response elements (HRE)
enzyme

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55
Q

Water soluble hormones are ____ molecules, unable to ____.

A

polar

unable to cross the plasma membrane.

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56
Q

Water soluble hormones must bind receptors on the plasma membrane to initiate a series of biochemical events within the cell, which is called _____.

A

signal transduction

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57
Q

The first messenger in _____ is the signalling molecule (hormone) which causes the formation of the second messenger.

A

signal transduction

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58
Q

The second messenger of signal transduction is a molecule that ____ cellular activity.

A

modifies

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59
Q

Signal transduction starts with the activation of a ____ protein.

A

G

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60
Q

REVIEW SLIDE SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

A

!

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61
Q

Why does a lipid-soluble hormone need a carrier proteins within the blood?

A

A lipid soluble hormone is non polar which does not mix with the polar nature of the blood plasma.

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62
Q

Lipid soluble hormones cause what to occur?

A

the transcription of a specific mRNA and thus the synthesis of a specific protein

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63
Q

A water soluble hormone is considered a ____ messenger.

A

first

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64
Q

Activated G proteins can then activate what two other plasma proteins?

A

Adenylate cyclase

phopholipase C

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65
Q

Adenylate cyclase activates cAMP which then activates ___.

A

protein kinase A

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66
Q

Phospholipase C splits PIP2 into

A

DAG

IP3

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67
Q

The pituitary gland also called the hypophysis is located ___ to the hypothalamus but is connected by way of the ____.

A

inferior

infundibulum

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68
Q

The pituitary gland consists of ___ lobes and can be found within the sella turcica.

A

two

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69
Q

The posterior pituitary gland is also called the ____,

A

neurohypophysis

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70
Q

Posterior pituitary gland is composed of the ____ and pars nervosa.

A

infundibulum

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71
Q

The posterior pituitary gland makes up about 1/4 of the pituitary ___.

A

mass.

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72
Q

Axons extend through the hypothalamo - hypophyseal tract from the hypothalamus to the ______.

A

pars nervousa.

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73
Q

The posterior pituitary gland has two hypothalamic nuclei; paraventricular and the ____.

A

supraoptic

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74
Q

Most of the pitutitary mass is called the ____.

A

adenohypophysis

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75
Q

There are three distinct areas of the anterior pituitary gland _______, ________, _______.

A

pars distalis
pars tuberalis
pars intermedia

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76
Q

Hormones produced in _____ cells (neuronal cell body clusters) of the hypothlamus: paraventricular nucleus - oxytocin and supraoptic nucleus - ____.

A

neurosecretory cells

ADH

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77
Q

Hormones are stored in vesicles within the synaptic knobs of the neurons located in the ____. hormones are released into blood when nerve signal is sent from the ____.

A

posterior pituitary

hypothalamus

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78
Q

____ stimulates contraction of smooth muscles within uterus during delivery and breast during infant nursing.

A

oxytocin

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79
Q

_____ stimulates kidneys to decrease urine output, thirst centers to increase fluid intake and vasoconstriction if released in high enough doses.

A

ADH (vasopressin)

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80
Q

_____ hormones stimulate the production and secretion of specific AP hormones.

A

releasing hormones (RHs)

81
Q

Releasing Hormones of the AP

A 
thyrotropin TRH
prolactin PRH
gonadotropin GnRH
corticoropic CRH
growth hormone GHRH
82
Q

______ hormones decrease the production and secretion of specific AP hormones.

A

inhibiting hormones (IHs)

83
Q

Inhibiting hormones of the AP

A

prolactin PRL
growth hormone GHIH
* only two that have inhibiting hormones

84
Q

All AP hormones are _____ hormones (except prolactin). They stimulate other endocrine glands/cells to release their hormones.

A

tropic

85
Q

Hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands/cells to release their hormones.

A

tropic hormones

86
Q

The hypothalamus can be stimulated by:

A 
age
time of day
nutrient level
stress
excerices to release GHRH which causes release of GH from AP
87
Q

______, Growth hormone primary target, release insulin like growth factors (IGFs).

A

hepatocytes

88
Q

IGFs similar to growth hormone but create a greater response due to having a greater _____.

A

half life 20 hours vs 20 minutes

89
Q

Increased levels of growth hormone and IGF blood concentrations stimulate the ______ to release GHIH and inhibit the release of GHRH as well as ____ from the AP.

A

hypothalamus

GH

90
Q

All body cells have receptors for GH and ____.

A

IGF.

91
Q

GH and IGF both activate ______.

A

second messengers

92
Q

GH and IGF activating second messengers causes increased protein synthesis, increased cellular division, and or ______.

A

cell differentiation

93
Q

Growth hormone causes hepatocytes to stimulate to increase ______.

A

blood glucose levels.

94
Q

Adipocytes are stimulated by the growth hormone to increase ____.

A

lipolysis

95
Q

What is the hypothalamo-hyphyseal tract?

A

the axons from the hypothalamus to the pars nervosa of the posterior pituitary

96
Q

The hormones that are released from the posterior pituitary are synthesized where?

A

In the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus

97
Q

Of the 6 hormones released from the anterior pituitary, how many are stimulated to be released due to a releasing hormone from the hypothalamus?

A

all six

98
Q

What is a tropic hormone

A

a hormone that stimulates the release of another hormone

99
Q

What does IGF stand for? Where are they synthesized? Why are they stronger than growth hormones?

A

Insulin-like growth factor; in the liver; because they have a longer halft live

100
Q

Largest endocrine structure in the body?

A

thyroid gland

101
Q

The thyroid gland is composed of microscopic structures called _____.

A

thyroid follicles

102
Q

Thyroid follicles contain a ___ (protein rich fluid) surrounded by follicular cells.

A

colloid

103
Q

______ cells found between follicles of thyroid and release calcitonin.

A

parafollicular cells

104
Q

_____ is a hormone that decreases blood calcium levels.

A

calcitonin

105
Q

Follicular cells produce a glycoprotein called _____ which is secreted and stored within the colloid.

A

thyroglobin (TGB)

106
Q

Within the colloid of a follicular cells thyroglobin (TGB) binds with ____ and forms DIT and MIT which are _______.

A

iodine

thyroid hormone precursors

107
Q

When thyroid hormone is needed, DIT and MIT are taken from the colloid by the _____ and with the aid of a _____, form into the active forms of thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) which are then released into the blood stream.

A

follicular cell

lysosome

108
Q

Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis

A

LIST

109
Q

Thyroid hormone (TH) ___ protein synthesis, in all cells, especially ____.

A

increases

neurons

110
Q

Thyroid hormone (TH) ____ production of Na+/K+ pumps (action of ____ pumps generates heat).

A

increases

more

111
Q

_____ is the increase of heat production of the body, as by the thyroid hormone.

A

calorigenic effect

112
Q

Thyroid hormone (TH) stimulates hepatocytes (liver cells) to _____ blood glucose levels.

A

increase

113
Q

Thyroid hormone (TH) stimulates adipocytes (fat cells) to ____ lipolysis.

A

increase

114
Q

Thyroid hormone (TH) increases respiratory rate, ______, and _____.

A

heart rate and stroke volume

115
Q

What is thyroglobin?

A

a glycoprotein made by the follicular cells and stored in the colloid

116
Q

Once thyroglobin binds iodine it creates _____.

A

DIT and MIT

117
Q

T3 and T4 are synthesized by the follicular cell with the aid of what organelle?

A

lysosome

118
Q

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis?

A

TRH is released by the hypothalamus —-> which stimulates the release of TSH from the anterior pituitary (AP) —-> which stimulates teh release of TH from the thyroid

119
Q

Thyroid hormone increases protein synthesis in which cells of the body?

A

all cells especially neurons

120
Q

Adrenal glands are composed of a ____ and ____.

A

cortex and medulla

121
Q

Adrenal medulla releases _______ (_______) in response to sympathetic nervous system.

A

catecholamine’s (Epinephrine and Norepinephrine)

122
Q

Adrenal cortex syntesizes more than ____ different lipid-soluble corticosteroids.

A

25

123
Q

The adrenal cortex is divided into what three regions?

A

zona glomerulosa
zona fasciculata
zona reticularis

124
Q

The outer layer of the adrenal cortex

A

zona glomerulosa

125
Q

Zona _____ synthesize mineralocorticoids to help regulate the composition and concentration of ___ in the body.

A

glomerulosa

ions

126
Q

In the zona glomerulosa, _____, regulates Na+ and K+ concentrations int he blood/body fluids by regulating their secretions from the kidneys.

A

aldosterone

127
Q

The middle layer of the adrenal cortex

A

zona fasciculata

128
Q

The zona ____ synthesize glucocorticoids such as cortisol and corticosterone.

A

fasciculata

129
Q

The inner most layer of the adrenal cortex

A

zona reticularis

130
Q

The zona ____ synthesize gonadocorticoids (sex hormones). Primarily male sex hormones called _____.

A

reticularis

androgens

131
Q

Cortisol and corticosterone increase ____ levels in blood in response to ____.

A

nutrient levels

stress of injury.

132
Q

Hypothalamus is stimulated by decreased levels of blood cortisol levels thus releasing _____ causing the release of _____ from the pituitary. This causes the release of cortisol and corticosterone (95% cortisol)

A

CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

133
Q

_____ and ____ are inhibited by increased levels of cortisol.

A

CRH

ACTH

134
Q

Cortisol is ____ soluble, binds receptors within cytosol causing changes in ___ activation.

A

lipid

gene

135
Q

Cortisol stimulates _____ to increase blood glucose levels.

A

hepatocytes (liver cells)

136
Q

Cortisol stimulates adipocytes to increase ______.

A

lipolysis

137
Q

Cortisol causes most cells (muscle, lymphatic, skin, bone) to increase _____ as well as decrease glucose uptake.

A

protein catabolism

138
Q

High does of cortisol increase retention of ____ and ____.

A

Na+ and H20

139
Q

High doses of cortisol decrease _____.

A

inflammation

140
Q

High doses of cortisol suppress the _____.

A

immune system

141
Q

High doses of cortisol inhibit ____ repair.

A

connective tissue

142
Q

Cortisol causes increased glycogeonlysis and gluconeogenesis and ____ in the liver.

A

decreased glycogenesis

143
Q

Cortisol causes increased lipolysis on adipose tissue and decreased ____.

A

lipogenesis

144
Q

General adaptation syndrome is also known as the ____.

A

stress response

145
Q

____ is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it.

A

general adaptation syndrome

146
Q

General adaptation syndrome stressors can be ___ or _____.

A

emotional or physical

147
Q

Anxiety, anger, fear, and excitement are ______ stressors.

A

emotional

148
Q

Fever, trauma, hermorrhage, surgery and malnutrition are ____ stressors.

A

physical

149
Q

The three stages of general adaptation syndrome stages

A

the alarm reaction
the stage of resistance
the stage of exhaustion

150
Q

The alarm reaction is ____ and regulated by the ____ nervous system.

A

immediate

sympathetic

151
Q

During the alarm reaction stage of general adaptation syndrome there is a release of ______.

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine

152
Q

In the alarm reaction stage of general adaptation syndrome the is increased ____

A

respiration, blood pressure, etc.

153
Q

The stage of ____ occurs after a few hours in during general adaptation syndrome.

A

resistance

154
Q

In the stage of resistance of general adaptation syndrome once the glycogen stores are depleted, ____ is released.

A

cortisol

155
Q

During the stage of resistance of general adaptation syndrome there is an increased level of _____ and protein catabolism

A

blood glucose levels

156
Q

The stage of _____ occurs after weeks or months in the general adaptation syndrome.

A

exhaustion

157
Q

During the stage of exhaustion of general adaptation syndrome the ____ are depleted, and the body is weaker.

A

fat

158
Q

During the stage of exhaustion of the general adaptation syndrome there are increased levels of _____ causing fluid, electrolyte, and pH imbalance.

A

aldosterone

159
Q

What type of hormone is released by the zona glomerulosa?

A

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

160
Q

What type of hormone is released by the zona fasciculata?

A

glucocorticoids (cortisol)

161
Q

What type of hormone is released by the zona reticularis?

A

gonadocorticoids (androgens)

162
Q

In most cells, of the body, what is the effect of cortisol release?

A

protein catabolism and less glucose uptake

163
Q

What are the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome or stress response?

A

The alarm reaction
The stage of resistance
The stage of exhaustion

164
Q

The pancreas is considered a ____ gland because it has both endocrine and exocrine functions.

A

heterocrine gland

165
Q

The pancreas’s endocrine functions to regulate _____.

A

blood glucose concentrations

166
Q

Endocrine cells found in pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) account for ____ of the pancreatic volume.

A

1%

167
Q

What are the two types of pancreatic islet cells?

A

alpha cells

beta cells

168
Q

Alpha cells secrete _____.

A

glucagon.

169
Q

Beta cells secrete _____.

A

insulin

170
Q

____ is released following food intake.

A

insulin

171
Q

______ in beta cells detect an increase in blood glucose levels (normal 70-110 mg/dL)

A

chemoreceptors

172
Q

Insulin is a ____ messenger.

A

first

173
Q

Insulin stimulates increased _____ in the liver.

A

glycogenesis (s the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage.)

174
Q

Insulin stimulates _____, removing fatty acids from blood in adipocytes.

A

increased lipogenesis

175
Q

In most cells, insulin increases the uptake of _____, causing an increase in protein anabolism (especially in muscle cells)

A

amino acids

176
Q

In most cells, insulin increase in glucose _____ especially in muscle cells and adipocytes. This happens by increasing glucose transport of proteins in the ____.

A

uptake

plasma membrane

177
Q

Insulin increases uptake of amino acids, which stimulates _____.

A

protein anaabolism

178
Q

Insulin causes increased _____ in the liver and decreased _____ and ______.

A

Increased glycogenesis
Decreased glycogenolysis
decreased glycogeneogenesis

179
Q

Insulin causes increased ____ in the adipose connective tissue and decreased lipolysis.

A

lipogenesis

180
Q

____ is released in response to low blood glucose levels by alpha cells.

A

glucagon

181
Q

Glucagon is a ____ messenger that stimulates cAMP.

A

first

182
Q

Glucagon increases glyconeolysis and glyconeogeneis and decreases ____>

A

glycogenesis

183
Q

Glucagon increases _____ and decreases lipogenesis in adipocytes.

A

lipolysis

184
Q

Pineal gland releases _____ which regulates our circadian rhythms.

A

melatonin

185
Q

Parathyroid glands releases _____ which stimulates release of calcium from bones, kidneys to conserve calcium and stimulate release of calcitriol from kidneys which is needed to absorb ____ from our diet.

A

PTH

calcium

186
Q

The thymus releases ____ hormones and participates in _______.

A

thymic

T-lymphocyte maturation

187
Q

The heart releases ____ hormone

A

atrial natriuretic

188
Q

Kidneys release _____.

A

erythropoietin

189
Q

Liver releases _____.

A

angiotensinogen

190
Q

Adipose tissue releases ____, that regulates food intake by binding neurons within hypothalamus that control appetite (increases).

A

leptin

191
Q

Stomach/small intestine: releases _____ to increase stomach activity.

A

gastrin

192
Q

Stomach/small intestine: releases ____ to stimulate release of liver and pancreatic secretions.

A

secretin

193
Q

Stomach/small intestine: releases ______ which stimulates the release of bile from the gallbladder.

A

cholecystokinin (CCK)

194
Q

Adipose tissue releases _____.

A

leptin

195
Q

Adipose tissue releases leptin which regulates food intake by binding neurons within hypothlamaus that control ______.

A

appetite

increases

196
Q

The endocrine system regulates the development, growth, and ______

A

metabolism

197
Q

The endocrine system functions to maintain homeostasis of blood _____.

A

composition and volume

198
Q

The endocrine system controls _______.

A

digestive processes

199
Q

The endocrine system controls the ______

A

reproductive activities

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY II (20 decks)

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