Chapter 22 Flashcards
______ is the numerous cellular and molecular structures located through the body that function together in the bodies defense
immune system
The immune system has two categories
innate
adaptive
The innate immune system is _____.
non specific
The adaptive immune system is ____.
acquired
______ are Organisms that cause damage, or possibly death, to the host organism that they invade (pathogenic)
infectious agents
Five types of infectious agents
bacteria viruses fungi protozoans multicellular parasites
______ microscopic, single-celled organisms (prokaryotic cell)
bacteria
______ are not cells, composed of DNA or RNA within a protein capsid.
viruses
_____ are eukaryotic cells with cell wall around plasma membrane
fungi
______ are eukaryotic cells with no cell wall
Protozoans
_________ are larger organisms such as tapeworms
Multicellular parasites
Innate and adaptive immunity are similar in that they both work to ____ us from potentially harmful agents.
protect
Innate and adaptive immunity differ in the ways that cells respond, the mechanisms involved in ______ of harmful substances and the ____ of time required for a response.
elimination
amount
Innate immunity responds ____ to a wide array of substances.
immediately
Adaptive immunity response is a ___ to specific antigens.
delayed response
What defenses are we born with?
innate immunity
Innate immunity includes barriers of skin and _______ that prevent entry.
mucosal membranes
Innate immunity includes non-specific_____ and _____ internal defenses.
cellular and molecular
Innate immunity does not require ____ exposure to the foreign substance.
previous
Adaptive immunity involves specific ____ and _____ which respond to different foreign substances called antigens to which we are exposed.
t-lymphocytes
b-lymphocytes
Adaptive immunity typically takes several ____ to be effective.
days
What are the five types of infectious agents?
bacteria fungi protozoa viruses multicellular parasites
What are the two main types of immunity?
adaptive and innate
Which type of immunity takes longer to respond to a pathogen?
adaptive
Which type of immunity are we born with?
innate
Which type of immunity includes the skin and mucous membranes?
innate
Which type of immunity is activated by a specific antigen?
adaptive
Innate first line of defense (4)
physical barrier
secretions
normal flora
bacteria
Epithelial tissues of epidermis and connective tissues of dermis provide _______ to microbes
physical barrier
_______ from skin have antimicrobial substances
Sebum, lysozyme, defensins, and dermicidin
Secretions
______ reside on skin and prevent the growth of pathogenic microorganisms
Normal flora
________- produce mucus
contains lysozymes, defensins, and immunoglobulin A (IgA)
Mucosal membranes
_____ also line inside of body tracts and suppress the growth of other potentially more virulent types
bacteria
If microbes get past _____ they trigger the innate immunities second line of defense and maybe even adaptive immunity (third line of defense)
first line of defense
Innate immunities second line of defense includes ____, ____, and ____.
neutrophils
macrophages
dendritic cells
______ and _____ destroy infectious agents with the aid of lysosomes and their oxidative bursts (nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide, and superoxide)
Residue released by exocytosis
Neutrophils
macrophages
______ destroy infectious agents and then present fragments of the microbe on its cell surface (antigen presenting cell)
necessary for initiating adaptive immunity
Dendritic cells
_____ and mast cells are pro-inflammatory chemical-secreting cells
basophils
During cellular defense chemicals are released that include ____, _____, and _____.
histamine
heparin
eicosanoids
_____ increases both vasodilation and capillary permeability.
histamine
____ is an anticoagulant.
heparin
_____ increase inflammation.
Eicosanoids
Substances released by basophils and mast cells increase _____ from blood to injured tissue as well as attracting immune cells to the area.
fluid movement
_____ cells destroy a wide variety of cells.
Natural Killer
Natural killer cells destroy virus-infected, bacteria-infected, tumor and from _____.
transplanted tissue
NK cells are formed in _____ and circulate in blood and accumulate in lymph nodes, tonsils, and ____.
bone marrow
spleen
Natural killer cells provide _____ by releasing cytotoxic chemicals when coming in contact with unhealthy cells.
immune surveillance
____ forms pore in plasma membrane.
perforin
nk cells
____ enter cells and initiate apoptosis.
granzymes
nk cells
Eosinophils targets ___.
parasites
Eosinophils release enzymes and other substances that are ____ to the parasite.
lethal
Eosinophils release _____ to form pore in plasma membranes of parasitic cells.
proteins
_____ participate in allergy and asthma.
eosinophils
_____ participate in phagocytosis of antigen-antibody complexes.
eosinophils
______ are small soluble proteins produced by cells of both innate and adaptive immune system to regulate and facilitate immune system activity
cytokines
The function of _____ is a mean of communication between cells.
cytokines
____ control the development and behavior of effector cells of immunity.
Cytokines
____ regulate the inflammatory response.
Cytokines
____ function as weapons to destroy infected cells.
cytokines
Examples of cytokines.
interleukins IL
tumor necrosis factors TNF
colony-stimulating factors CSF
interferons IFN
An example of one of our first lines of defense.
mucosal membrane
What is the function of neturophils, macrophages and dendritic cells?
phagocytize unwanted substances
What is the function of both basophils and mast cells?
release chemicals to initate and create inflammation
What are the two chemicals secreated by natural killer cells?
perforins and granzymes
_______ Provide nonspecific defense against viral infections
interferons
Interferons include ____ and ___ produces by leukocytes and virus-infected cells.
INF alpha
INF beta
IFN alpha and IFN beta bind receptors of neighboring cells, preventing them from getting ____, which triggers synthesis of enzymes that both destroy RNA or DNA and inhibit synthesis of viral proteins.
infected
IFN alpha and IFN beta stimulate ___ cells to destroy virsu infected cells.
NK
IFN - y is produced by ____ and _____.
T lymphocytes and NK cells
IFN-y stimulates macrophages to destroy _____ cells.
virus infected
_____ is Composed of 30 plasma proteins that make up 10% of blood serum proteins
complement system
_____ complement proteins synthesized in liver and ____ in blood
inactive
activated
______ is when complement proteins activated by binding antibody
Classical pathway ~
_______ is when polysaccharides of certain bacterial and fungal cell walls bind directly with a complement protein
Alternative pathway ~
Complement system outcomes (4)
opsonization
inflammation
cytolysis
elimination of immune complexes
_____ ~ binding of a protein called opsonin enhances phagocytosis (complement protein binds instead of opsonin)
oposinzation
_____ is the activation of mast cells and basophils as well as attracting neutrophils and macrophages
inflammation
_____ forms a plasma membrane pore, allowing fluids to enter the cell and cause lysis. This is called a MAC (membrane attack complex)
cytolysis
MAC stands for
membrane attack complex
___________ links immune complexes to erythrocytes to be transported to the liver and spleen for destruction
Elimination of immune complexes
_____ is Immediate, local, nonspecific event that occurs in vascularized tissue against a great variety of injury causing stimuli
inflammation
Steps of inflammation
step 1: release of various chemicals
step 2: vascular changes
step 3: recruitmen of elukocytes
step 4: delivery of plasma proteins
What are CAMs?
cell-adhesion molecules
During the first step of inflammation Histamine, leukotrienes, prostaglandins, interleukins, TNF’s and chemotactic factors are released by damaged cells, basophils, dendritic cells, macrophages, mast cells and ____.
infectious organisms
Vasodilation occurs in which stage of inflammation?
second
LIST steps of inflammation
?
Interferons aid us in defense against what type of pathogens?
viruses
What does MAC stand for and what does it do?
membrane attack complex, pokes a hole in the plasma membrane causing cell lysis
What are three types of vascular changes that occur?
vasodilation, increased permeability, increased CAMS
What does CAM stand for and what is it’s function?
cell adhesion molecule, to bind leukocytes in the blood for movement into the damaged tissue
What is diapedesis
squeezing of leukocyte out of blood and into tissue
What is chemotaxis?
migration of leukocytes to a damaged tissue due to a chemical gradient
The signs of inflammation include redness, heat, swellling, ____, and _____.
pain and loss of function
Redness is a sign of inflammation due to _____.
increased blood flow
Heat is a sign of inflammation due to the increased blood flow and increased _____ within the area.
metabolic activity
Swelling is a sign of inflammation due to an increase in _____ from capillaries.
fluid loss
Pain is a sign of inflammation due to ____, prostaglandins and substances released by microbes as well as compression of pain receptors due to swelling.
kinins
Loss of function is a sign of inflammation due to pain and swelling in more _____.
severe cases
Inflammation causes a net movement of fluid from ____, through infected/injured area, and then into the lymphatic system
blood
During inflammation vasodilation causes ___ into infected area.
more blood
During inflammation increased capillary permeability causes endothelial cells to contract causing larger ____ allowing more fluid movement.
openings
During inflammation a loss of plasma proteins decreases capillary osmotic pressure resulting in less ____ being retained and reabsorbed by the blood.
fluid
Inflammation causes Increased _________ in interstitial fluid increases fluid uptake into the lymphatic capillaries carrying unwanted substances with it which can then stimulate a systemic immune response
hydrostatic pressure
____ is An abnormal elevation of body temperature of at least 1.8°F
fever
A ____ Results from release of fever-inducing molecules called pyrogens (IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-)
fever
_____ target hypothalamus and cause release of prostaglandins E2 which increases the set point
pyrogens
The fever ____ includes the hypothalamus stimulates cutaneous blood vessels to vasoconstrict and induces shivering body temp rises
onset
The fever ____ includes Metabolic rate increases to promote physiologic processes involved in eliminating the harmful substance
Liver and spleen bind zinc and iron to slow microbial reproduction
stadium
The fever _____ includes Hypothalamus no longer stimulated by pyrogens, prostaglandin release decreases, set point reverts to normal
Body releases heat through vasodilation of cutaneous blood vessels and sweating
defervescense
Benefits of a fever include: %)
- Inhibits replication of bacteria and viruses
- Promotes interferon activity
- Increase activity of adaptive immunity
- Accelerates tissue repair
- Increases CAMs on endothelial cells of lymphatic capillaries
Risks of a fever
- Changes in metabolic pathways and denaturation of body proteins anything above 102°F
- Seizures may occur at sustained body temperature above 102°F
- Irreversible brain damage may occur at body temp’s sustained at greater than 106°F
- Death likely when body temp reaches 109°F
What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation?
redness, swelling, pain, heat
If inflammation advantageous or not? Explain.
It is advantageous because it acts like a flushing of the infected or damaged tissue, allowing pathogens to enter the lymphatic system and initiating an immune response.
What is a pyrogen?
A molecule that induces fever
What are the three stages of a fever?
Onset, stadium, defervscence
What is one benefit of a fever?
Inhibits growth of bacteria/viruses, promotes interferon activity as well as adaptive immunity activity, accelerates tissue repair, and increases production of CAMs
____ immunity (cell-mediated) T-cells differentiate into helper T-cells and cytotoxic T-cells
cellular
_____ immunity (antibody-mediated) B-cells develop into plasma cells to synthesize and release antibodies
humoral
______ immunity Initiated upon entry of foreign substance (or antigen) into the body
adaptive
______ structure A substance that causes the formation of and binds to antibodies
antigen
_____ (antigenic determinants) is the specific site on the antigen that is recognized by immune cells
epitope
_____ are small molecules that must attach to a carrier molecule to trigger a response within a host
haptens
When antigens bind T cells (induce an immune response) they are called ______.
immunogens
____ antigens are found on protein capsids of viruses, cell walls of bacteria and fungi, within bacterial toxins, and plasma membranes of tumor and cancerous cellls.
Foreign
____ antigens are found on every healthy cell of the body and do not bind the bodies immune components
self
_______ caused by immune cells recognizing self-antigens as foreign and initiating an immune response
Autoimmune disorder
______ are Any immune cell that functions specifically to communicate the presence of antigen to both helper and cytotoxic T cells
antigen presenting cells (APC)
Dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells function as _____.
APCs
Antigen Presenting Cells
All nucleated can also act as ____.
APCs
MHC also known as ____.
major histocompatibility complex.
Antigen presentation requires attachment of antigen to specialized ______.
specialized transmembrane MHC protein
______ molecules used by nucleated cells and APCs bind cytotoxic T cells
MHC class I
______ molecules used only by APCs bind helper T cells
MHC class II
What are two types of adaptive immunity??
cellular and humoral
What is an epitope?
site on teh antigen that is recognized by the immune cell
What is an autoimmune disorder?
when immune cells recognize self antigens as foregin
What types of cells can be APC’s?
all nucleated
macrophages
dendritic cells
B cells
What does MHC stand for and what is it?
Major Histocompatibility complex, a specialized transmembrane protein needed for antigen presentation
_______ are created when Glycoproteins continuously synthesized by Rough ER and then embedded within plasma membrane.
~ endogenous pathway
_____ molecules attach peptide fragments randomly while in the RER
When cell is uninfected and healthy, peptide fragments are considered ‘self’ and are ignored by the immune system
MHC class I
With MHC class I molecules, when a cell is ____, peptide fragments are from a protein unknown to the immune system thus considered ‘foreign’, which then can initiate an immune response and target the cell for destruction
infected
MHC class II molecules: Glycoprotein continuously synthesized by the Rough ER and then embedded in the plasma membrane (similar to MHC class I) Considered \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ due to APC having to engulf an exogenous antigen
exogenous pathway
____ pathway is the formation and docking of MHC class II molecules in an APC.
exogenous
Exogenous ____ brought into cell through endocytosis forming a phogsome. This binds a ____ forming a phagolysosome where protein is digested.
antigen
lysosome
T and B cells differ from other immune cells due to their unique ____ complex.
receptor
the ___ structure consists of 100,000 receptor complexes per cell and receptor complexes only binding one specific antigen
lymphocyte
B cell receptors (BCR) make direct contact with an ___.
antigen
T cell receptors (TCR) must first have the ___ processed and presented in the plasma membrane of another type of cell (antigen presenting cell)
antigen
Helper T cells contains ____.
CD4 proteins.
Cytotoxic T cells contain ______
CD8 proteins
____ also contain co-receptors which are necessary for physical interaction with APC’s
T cells
Types of T cells
helper t cells
cytoxic t cells
memory t cells
regulatory t cells (Tregs)
____ coordinate the immune response helping both cellular and humoral immunity as well as enhancing certain aspects of innate immunity
Helper t cells
_____ release chemicals that are toxic to cells resulting in their destruction
cytotoxic t cells
______ cause a more rapid response to an antigen when future encounters of the same antigen occur
memory t cells
______ function in suppressing the immune response
regulatory t cells (Tregs)
Life Events of lymphocytes
formation
activation
effector response
Life Events of lymphocytes
Formation of lymphocytes
Both B and T cells formed in red bone marrow
B cells mature in red bone marrow while T cells mature in Thymus
Here they become specific for a foreign antigen
Activation of lymphocytes
Lymphocytes migrate to secondary lymphatic structures where they are housed
Here they are exposed to their specific antigen and become activated
Activation induced replication to form many identical lymphocytes
Effector response
Specific action of the T and B cells help to eliminate the antigen
T cells typically migrate out of secondary structures and to sites of infection
B cells primarily remain within secondary structures and synthesize and release large quantities of antibodies against the antigen. The antibodies enter the blood and lymph and are transported to the site of infection
Lymphocytes both b and t cells are formed in the ____.
red bone marrow
B cells mature in _____.
red bone marrow
T cells mature in ____.
thymus
While b and t cells mature they become more specific for a ____.
foreign antigen
Lymphocytes migrate to ___ lymphatic structures where they are housed. here they are exposed to their ___ and become activated. Activation induces replication to form many _____ lymphocytes.
migrate
specific antigen
identidcal
Specific action of the T and B cells help to ___ the antigen.
eliminate
T cells typically migrate out of secondary structures and to sites of ____.
infection
B cells primarily remain within secondary structures and synthesize and rlease large quantities of _____ against the antigen. They then enter the blood and lymph and are transported to the site of ___.
antibodies
infection
MHC class I proteins bind either self or foreign antigens within the rough ER. T or F
True
MHC class II proteins bind only ‘foreign’ antigens within the Rough ER. T or F
False
B-cell receptors bind antigens directly.
T or F
True
T-cells must be presented an antigen after processing through an APC.
T or F
True
Helper T-cells have CD8 co-receptors, while cytotoxic T-cells have CD4 co-receptors.
T or F
False
B-cells mature in the red bone marrow but T-cells mature in the thymus.
T or F
True
B-cells typically migrate to infected area’s while T-cells stay within lymphatic tissue but release antibodies into the blood.
T or F
False
Pre-T-lymphocytes considered a _____ because initially have both CD4 and CD8 proteins
double positive
T lymphocyte formation and selection Originate in bone marrow then migrate to the ____.
thymus
Each T-lymphocyte must be ‘tested’ to determine whether it’s (1) able to bind to the MHC molecule with a presented antigen, as well as whether it (2) binds to only _____ antigens and not ‘self’ antigens
foreign
Immature T cells bind with thymic epithelial cells that have MHC molecules and
T cells that bind the MHC survive while those that do not undergo apoptosis
T Lymphocyte Selection
Positive Selection
Thymic dendritic cells present self-antigens with MHC class I and II molecules to immature T cells. T cells that bind the self-antigen undergoes apoptosis Self-tolerance ~ T cells ability to ‘ignore’ molecules of the body or self-antigens
T Lymphocyte Selection
Negative Selection
_____ is when T-cells become either Helper T-cells (by losing the CD8 protein) or Cytotoxic T-cells (by losing the CD4 protein).
differentiation
After differentiation t cells migrate out of the thymus but are still considered naïve T cells because they have not yet been exposed to their ____.
Activation occurs once a T-cell binds it’s specific antigen
antigen
B-cells go through similar formation and selection processes but ____ are not involved and it occurs in the red bone marrow instead of the thymus
MHC
Activation of Helper T cells
List
Activation of Cytotoxic T cells
List
Activation of B cells
List
T-cells must under go a double selection in which they are positively selected for MHC binding but negatively selected for ‘self’ antigen binding.
T or F
True
If a T-cell loses its CD4 protein, it becomes a helper T-cell.
T or F
False
Activation of a helper T-cell depends upon binding of a MHC class I molecule and it’s CD8 co-receptor.
T or F
False
IL-2 is released by helper T-cells and acts as an autocrine and paracrine hormone.
T or F
True
Both helper and cytotoxic T-cells proliferate into both an active and a memory clone of themselves.
T or F
True
B-cells must ingest an antigen and present it with a MHC class I molecule to cytotoxic T-cells to become activated.
T or F
False
Activated B-cells proliferate into plasma cells and memory B-cells.
T or F
False
Effector response of _____ leave secondary structures after several days of exposure and migrate to site of infection, continuing to release cytokines to regulate other immune cells
t cells
____ t cells functions include activating cytotoxic t cells and they enhance formation and activity of innate immune cells.
helper t cells
____ t cells functions include destroying infecting cells that display the antigen by releasing granules containing perforin and granzymes (same and NK cells)
cytotoxic
_____ have a five day life-span and remain in lymph nodes the entire time, continuously synthesize and release antibodies to circulate throughout the body
plasma cells
Antibodies also known as ____ proteins.
immunoglobulin (Ig)
_________ are Y-shaped proteins composed of four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains, two light chains)
Immunoglobulins
Immmunoglobulins or antibodies contains a ___ region, which is located at teh ends of the arms contain the antigen binding sites.
variable
Immunoglobulins or antibodies contain a ___ region which contains the Fc regions which is the portion of the antibody that determines the biological function of the antibody
constant
Five types of Immunoglobulins or antibodies
IgG IgM IgA IgD IgE
3 types of antibody action through antigen binding sites
neutralization
agglutination
precipitation
_____ is when the antibody covers biologically active portion of microbe or toxin, leaving it ineffective
neutralization
____ is when the antibody cross-links cells to form a ‘clump”
agglutination
____ is when the antibody cross-links circulating particles forming an insoluble antigen–antibody complex
precipitation
____ is when the ~ Fc region of IgG and IgM bind complement proteins causing activation of the complement pathway
complement fixation
_____ is when the ~ Fc region of IgG can cause opsonization
*Certain phagocytic cells have receptors for Fc regions of certain antibodies, engulf both antibody and antigen
Opsonization
The _____ occurs when Fc region of IgG binds specific NK cells
activation of NK cells
NK cell destroys abnormal cell by release of ______ chemicals causing apoptosis
cytotoxic
____ major class, makes up 75-85% of antibodies
IgG
____ Predominantly in lymph, CSF, serous fluid, peritoneal fluid
IgG
____ Can perform any and all functions of antibodies
IgG
___ found mostly in blood
IgM
____ Most effective at causing agglutination of cells and binding complement
IgM
___ is Found in areas exposed to the environment (mucous membranes, tonsils, mucus, saliva, tears and breast milk)
IgA
____ is Significant role in protecting the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts
IgA
____ Functions as the antigen-specific B cell receptor
IgD
____ Also functions to identify when immature B cells may be ready for activation
IgD
____ is Formed in response to allergic reactions and to parasitic infections
IgE
___ Causes release of histamine and other mediators of inflammation from basophils and mast cells and it attracts eosinophils
IgE
Long-lived lymphocytes represent an ‘army’ of thousands against specific antigens and are responsible for _____
immunologic memory
_____ is due to subsequent exposure to an antigen occurs more rapidly and produce a more powerful response
Pathogen typically eliminated before disease symptoms develop. This makes adaptive immunity a highly potent protector
secondary response
____ are attenuated or dead microorganisms which are effective in developing memory cells
vaccines
Measuring immunologic memory is done via ____ in blood serum.
antibody titers
_____is a Measurable response of antibody production to the first exposure
primary response
____ is the ~ the 3-6 day period which is required for antigen detection, activation, proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes
lag or latent phase
Production of antibodies,___ and ___ occurs within 1-2 weeks
IgG and IgM
______ is a Measureable response to subsequent exposure
secondary response
Secondary response has a much ___ lag phase due to memory cells.
shorter
___ produce much quicker and with a greater proportion of the IgG antibodies in a secondary response.
Antibodies
Results from a direct encounter with a pathogen or foreign substance that results in production of _____
memory cells
_____ means an ~ individual is directly exposed to the antigen of an infectious agent (active)
naturally acquired
____ means the exposure occurs through a vaccine (active)
artifically acquired
Two types of active immunity.
naturally acquired
artificially acquired
Two types of passive immunity
naturally acquired
artificially acquired
_____ is obtained from another individual or animal and does not results in the production of memory cells
passive immunity
____ occurs when there is a ~ transfer of antibodies form the mother to the fetus across the placenta (IgG) or to the baby in the mother’s breast milk (IgG, IgM and IgA)
(passive)
naturally acquired
______ passive immunity occurs when a serum containing antibodies against a specific antigen is transferred from one individual to another
artificially acquired
Cytotoxic T-cells are similar to NK cells because they release perforin and granzymes.
T or F
True
The Fc region of an antibody categorizes an antibody into five classes: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE.
T or F
True
Antibodies can function by binding of antigens to specific binding sites, or through the use of the Fc region.
T or F
True
IgM is the most abundant immunoglobulin.
T or F
False, IgG
The primary immunological response has a 3-6 day delay and primarily produces both IgG and IgM within 1-2 weeks.
T or F
True
The secondary immunological response is due to memory cells, contains a much shorter lag time and primarily produces IgM.
T or F
False
Active immunity doesn’t produce memory cells while passive immunity does.
T or F
False
