Final Exam Flashcards
Where do humans lie within the kingdoms
Inside domain eukarya in kingdom animalia
What is anatomy
The scientific study of the structure of an organism
What is physiology
The study of the function of an organism
Difference and similarities of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Prokaryotes - free floating DNA, non membranous, very small, typically unicellular
Eukaryotes - have a nucleus, membranous, very large, mitosis and meiosis, typically multicellular, aerobic
Both have - DNA, cell walls, ribosomes, cytoplasm
Hydrogen
Ionic
Covalent
Hydrogen - weak attraction between oppositely charges regions or polar molecules
Covalent - forms when atoms share electrons, and hav very strong bonds
Ionic - electrically charged atoms or electrons
Hydrophobic
Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic - water hating
Hydrophilic - water loving
Where is water primarily stored
Intracellular
Define acid
A chemical substance that neutralizes alkalis, dissolves some metals, and turns litmus red; typically, a corrosive or sour-tasting liquid of this kind
- it contributes hydrogen ions (H+) to solutions
Define base
A substance that can neutralize the acid by reacting with hydrogen ions
Define isotope
Atoms with a different number of neutrons
What is the cell theory
All life comes from preexisting cells
All life is composed of cells
The cell is the basic unit of life
Phospholipid bilayer is also known as the
Plasma membrane
Active transport
Active transport requires the use of ATP
Sodium potassium pump - pumps 3 sodium in for every 2 potassium you take out
Passive transport
Osmosis - the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
Diffusion - a natural phenomenon caused by the tendency of small particle to spread out evenly within any given space
Epithelial
Connective
Nervous
Muscular
Epithelial - tightly packed cells that for a continuous layer, they cover the surfaces and line the body cavities (protection, sensory functions, secretion, absorption, excretion); simple, stratified, squamous, transitional
Connective - bones, joints of cartilage, blood, fat, tendons and ligaments
Nervous - brain and spinal cord, nerves of the body, sensory organs
Muscular - heart, stomach-intestines, skeletal muscles
Mucosa
“Mucous layer”
Innermost layer of the GI wall, facing the lumen. Is the absorptive and secretory layer
Serosa
“Serious layer”
Outermost layer of the GI tract, the visceral layer of the peritoneum, lines the abdominal pelvic cavity that covers the organs
Muscularis
“muscular layer”
Thick layer of muscle tissue that wraps around the submucosa; segmental contractions and peristaltic movements
Submucosa
The layer of the digestive tube that is compassed of connective tissue (numerous small glands, blood vessels, and parasympathetic nerves that form the submucosa plexus)
Cutaneous layer
The superficial epidermis, the deep thicker dermis
The four layers of tissue
Simple - one layer
Stratified - multiple
Transitional - moves and it stretches
Pseudostratified - looks like multiple layers but is only one
The epidermis
The outer layer, stratified squamos epithelial cells, with no blood vessels
The dermis
The true skin, the deep thicker layer
The hypodermis
Subcutaneous layer consisting of fat and loose fibrous connective tissues
The accessory organs associated with the cutaneous membrane
Hair - shaft above the skin surfaces, the follicles
Smooth muscles - attached to hair follicles, raises the hair to an upright position
Sebaceous (oil) glands - secrete sebum, which moistens and softens the skin
Sweat glands - secrete sweat to help in temperature regulation
Blood vessels - supply nutrients, remove waste,assist in temperature regulation
Sensory nerve endings - detect heat, cold, touch, deep pressure, vibration
Homeostasis
The stable condition of an organism and its internal environment, maintenance or regulation of the stable condition, equilibrium
The composition of blood
55% plasma
45% formed elements
Universal donor
Universal recipient
Universal donor - type O because it has no antigens
Universal recipient - type AB+ because it has all antigens and no antibodies
What is the main thing that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
Hemoglobin
What are the two biggest killers in the United States
1) cardiovascular disease
2) cancer
Arteries
Carry deoxygenated blood away from the heart
Veins
Carry oxygenated blood towards the heart
What vessel carries fat
Lymphatics
What are lymphatic capillaries called
Lacteals
Fick’s equation
What does it calculate
VO2 Max = Q x a-VO2difx
- calculates how much oxygen is being delivered and removed form tissues
Q * a - difference in how much oxygen your body makes
Q = cardiac output
Q = SV * HR
Minute ventilation
What does it calculate
Minute ventilation = tidal volume x respiratory rate
- L/min = ml/breath x beats per minute
- tidal volume = VD + VA
B cells
Antibody - mediated immunity, they are active against viruses, bacteria, and soluble foreign molecules
T-cells
Cell-mediated immunity, they directly attack foreign cells, and coordinate the immune response
What is lymph
A fluid connective tissue derived from extracellular fluid that has white blood cells
What is the purpose of lymphatics
Lymphatics are critical for lipid transportation and immune function
Upper respiratory tract
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, larygopharnyx)
Larynx
Lower respiratory tract
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
- primary bronchi
- secondary bronchi
- tertiary bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
What separates the upper and lower respiratory tracts?
Larynx
Inspiratory muscles
Diaphragm and external intercostals sternocledomastoid, etc.
Expiratory muscles
Abs and internal intercostals
Ways in which O2 is transported
Hemoglobin
And can dissolve into plasma
Ways in which CO2 is transported
Hemoglobin
Can dissolve into plasma
Can buffer via carbonic acid
Esophagus
Pharynx
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Esophagus - a collapsible, muscular, mucosa-lines tube about 25 cm long, extending from the pharynx to the stomach and Irene’s the diaphragm in its descent from the thoracic cavity to the abdominal cavity
Pharynx - the act of swallowing moves a rounded mass of food (bolus) from the mouth to the stomach
Stomach - located below the diaphragm and liver, the intestine tube dilates into an elongated pouch like structure (food reservoir, secrete gastric juices, absorption in small amounts, produces gastric)
Small intestine - breaks down food, absorbs nutrients needed, gets rid of unnecessary components
Large intestine - absorbs water
Accessory structures in the digestive system
Salivary glands - produces saliva. Helps to cleanse teeth, dissolve molecules in the mouth
Tongue - moves food around the mouth, assists in swallowing, articulation of words, taste
Teeth - incisors (cutting and shearing), canine (cuspids), holding and tearing), premolars (bicuspids - crushing), molars (millstone - grinding)
Liver - detoxification of blood, secretion of glucose, triglycerides, and ketone bodies, production of plasma proteins, bile production and secretions
Gallbladder - stores and concentrates bile
Pancreas - secreted glucose and triglycerides
Small intestine
Duodenum: the shortest section of the small intestine (10”); attached to the pyloric end of the stomach
Jejunum: the point at which the small intestine turns abruptly forward and downward
Ileum: 12’ long; the minimal line of demarcation between the jejunum and ileum
Large intestine
Cecum: 2-3” long; blind pouch located in the Lowe right quadrant of the abdomen
Colon: ascending; transverse; descending; sigmoid
Rectum: the last 7-8” of the intestinal tube
Where does digestion begin for carbs, lipids, and proteins
Carbs - begins in the mouth and is finished in the small intestine
Lipids - begins in the duodenum and ends in the small intestine
Proteins - begins in the stomach and ends in the small intestine
Energy expenditure
- BMR or basal metabolic rate (the calories you burn to keep you alive) 60-70%
- exercise or physical activity (most variable) 10-30%
- thermic effect of food (breakdown of food for the body’s use); protein is the most thermogenic 10-15%
The main organ of the urinary system is?
The kidneys
Polyuria
Oliguria
Anuria
Polyuria - excessive urine production >2.5 L/day
Oliguria - decreased urine production 300-500 ml/day
Anuria - virtual absence of urine production <50 ml/day
What is the functional unit of a kidney
Nephron
Filtration
Movement of water and protein-free solutes from plasma in the glomerulus, across the capsular membrane, and into the capsular space
(in the glomerulus in the corpuscle of the nephron)
(Take everything out of the fridge)
Secretion
Blood to tubes
Movement of molecules out of the peritubular blood and into the tubule for secretion
(Distal convoluted tubule section)
Reabsorption
Tubes to blood
Movement of molecules out of the various segments of the tubule and into the peritubular blood
(The proximal kidney tubule or nephron)
Hyaline cartilage
Glass like
Most prevalent type
Found in the support rings of the respiratory tract and covering the ends of bones
Fibrocartilage
Strongest and most durable type
Matrix is rigid and filled with dense packing of strong white collagen fibers, in the intervertebral disks and menisci
Elastic
Contains few collagen fibers but a large number of very fine elastic fibers
Create flexibility especially in the ears and larynx
Amphiarthroses
Offer limited movement in certain circumstances. the two subtypes are synchondroses and symphyses
Diarthroses
Most mobile, numerous, and anatomically complex joints. Are freely movable joints
- uniaxial -> hinge and pivot, movement on one axis and one plane
- biaxial -> saddle and condyloid, movement on two axis and two planes
- multiaxial -> ball in socket and gliding, movement on three or more planes and three or more axis
The two types of bone marrow
Red bone marrow - prominent in children and infants (in charge of production of RBCs)
Yellow bone marrow - prominent in adults (hematopoietic stem cells replaced with adipocytes)
The three types of muscles
Cardiac: striated, involuntary, intercalated disks
Skeletal: striated, voluntary, multiple nuclei
Smooth: nonstriated, involuntary, visceral
What is the contractile unit of a muscle
The steps of muscle contraction
Sarcomere
1) an electrical signal (action potential) down the motor neuron
2) stimulating the motor unit
3) Ach is released within the NMJ
4) depolarizing the sarcolemma
5) action potential travels down the t-tubules
6) stimulating the sarcoplasmic reticulum
7) releases Ca++ ions
When you combine a muscle cell and a neuron what do you get
Motor unit
The lobes of the brain
Parietal: receives and interprets sensory information form the skin
Frontal: conscious thought and motor movements
Temporal: processes auditory information
Occipital: processes visual information
Insula: represents emotions and feelings
Cerebellum: language, decision making, conscious thought (last to receive sensory input)
Neuron
Glia
Neurons - the wiring of the nervous system
Glia - the supporting cell of the nervous system
The five types of glia cells
Astrocytes - provide the metabolic feeding and blood brain barrier to neurons
Microglia - the phagocytic cells that help remove bacteria and debris
Ependymal cells - for thin sheets that line fluid-filled cavities in the brain and spinal cord
Oligodendrocytes - produce the fatty myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the CNS
Schwann cells - produce the fatty myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS
White matter
Grey matter
White - consists of myelinated exceeding (sensory) and descending (motor) nerve tracts
Grey - contains cell bodies, densities and short, unmyelinated axons
PNS
Peripheral nervous system
- SNS (carries information to the somatic effectors “skeletal muscles”)
- ANS (Carrie’s information to the autonomies and visceral effectors)
Parasympathetic - “resting and digesting”
Sympathetic - “Fight or flight”
CNS
Composed of the brain and spinal cord
The types of glia cells
Astrocytes - provide the metabolic feeding and blood brain barrier to neurons
Microglia - the phagocytic cells that help remove bacteria and debris
Ependymal cells - form thin sheets that line fluid-filled cavities in the brain and spinal cord
Oligodendrocytes - produce the fatty myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the CNS
Schwann cells - produce the myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS
What structure links the endocrine and nervous system together
The hypothalamus
Insulin
Glucagon
Beta cells - insulin -> work to decrease blood sugar levels
Alpha cells - glucagon -> work to increase blood sugar levels
PTH
Parathyroid hormone
- stimulates osteoclasts to increase the blood calcium levels
Calcitonin
- stimulates osteoblasts to decrease blood calcium levels
What hormones regulate the sleep cycle
Melatonin and the biological clock
What hormone is associated with water loss
Antidiuretic hormone
- maintains water balance in the body
Cytoplasm
Cytosol
Cytoskeleton
Cell fibers
Cytoplasm - a gel-like substance of cells that contain many tiny suspended structures
Cytosol - “Little organs,” membranous, non-membranous
Cytoskeleton - the internal scaffolding that helps the cell maintain shape
Cell fibers - the cytoskeleton which supports and anchors the other cellular structures in the body
Nucleus
The control center of the cell. The central processing center
Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum: the manufacturing center
Ribosomes
Ribosomes: where protein synthesis happens and enzymes are created which are functional and structural proteins
Golgi apparatus
The processing and packaging plant
Mitochondria
The powerhouse of the cell
Centrosome
Centrosome - an organelle near the nucleus of a cell which contains the centrioles (in animal cells) and from which the spindle fibers develop in cell division.
‘Microtubule-organizing center”
