Exam 2 Flashcards
Lymphokinesis
Movement, or flow of lymph
- it flow throughout the thoracic duct and re-enters through the general circulation
Lacteals
Lymphatic capillaries that transport dietary lipids and fat-soluble vitamins to the blood stream
Thoracic duct
The main collecting ducts of the lymphatics, receives lymph from the whole body except the upper right quadrant
The right lymphatic
Drains the lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body
First line of defense
The barrier defense, “mechanical or chemical”
- skin and mucous
- the epithelial defense stops things from getting inside our bodies
- the chemical defense has mucous that traps pathogens, hydrochloric acid that destroys pathogens
The 2nd line of defense
- the inflammatory response, or “non-specific defense”
- examples of inflammatory responses are swelling, redness, heat, and fever
3rd line of defense
- adaptive immunity
- can recognize and target specific pathogens and foreign substances; has memory and remembers the initial exposure and responds more quietly and aggressively on substance exposures
Innate immunity
In place or already present, something we are born with
Adaptive immunity
Responds to and changes to specific threat. THe immunity that is developed over time.
B - lymphocytes
T - lymphocytes
B - lymphocytes -> antibody-mediated immunity, they are active against viruses, bacteria, and soluble foreign molecules.
- antibodies are proteins made by B lymphocytes that bind with and neutralize specific antigens
T - lymphocytes -> cell-mediated immunity, they directly attack foreign cells, and coordinate the immune response
- they are active against parasites, viruses, fungi, intracellular bacteria, cancer cells, cells with “non-self” MHC
The upper and lower digestive tracts structure
The upper: nasal cavity, oral cavity, pharynx (oropharynx, nasopharynx, laryngopahrynx), the larynx (voice box) -> separates the upper and lower
The lower: trachea, bronchi, (primary, secondary, tertiary), bronchioles, alveoli
The flap separating the esophagus and trachea that closes when you perform the Val sal maneuver
The epiglottis
The conducting division
“Tubes”
- passageway for air flow
- warms and filters air
- humidification (moistens)
- volume of the conducting division is referred to as dead space (30% of tidal volume)
Respiratory division
“Balloons”
Gas exchange
The volume in the respiratory division is referred to as alveolar volume (70% of tidal volume)
Tidal volume (VT)
Volume moved in or out of the respiratory tract during a normal respiratory cycle
- normal in/out
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
The maximum volume that can be moved into the respiratory tract after a normal inspiration
- maximum in after tidal expiration
Expiratory reserves volume
The maximum volume that can be moved out of the respiratory tract after a normal expiration
- max out after normal tidal expiration
Residual volume (RV)
Volume remaining in the respiratory tract after maximum expiration
(Air you can’t get out)
Vital capacity (VC)
Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve +expiratory reserve
- maximum in and out if max out = max in
Inspiratory capacity
Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve volume
- maximum volume inspired following tidal expiration
Functional residual capacity
Expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
- the volume in the lungs after tidal expiration
Total lung capacity
Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
= VC + RV
Forced expiratory volume
The prescience of respiratory obstruction by measuring the volume of air expired per second during forced expiration
FEV1
FEV2
FEV3
1 = 83%
2 = 94%
3 = 97%
Obstructive
Restrictive
Problem with the tubes
Problem with the balloons
The two muscled associated with breathing out
Internal intercostals -> they enable forced expiration of the lungs by depressing on the ribs
Abs -> there is a contraction of abdominal muscles when breathing out
The pleura does what
The pleura protects the lungs
The outer layer is the parietal pleura and attaches to the chest wall.
The innermost layer is the visceral pleura and covers the lungs, blood vessels, nerves, and bronchi.
The alimentary canal
- approximately 30 feet in length
- (refers to the gastrointestinal tract)
Gallbladder
Spleen
Salivary glands
Tongue
Teeth
Liver
Pancreas
Appendix
Spleen - largest lymphatic organ (red pulp - removes old and damaged red blood cells - storage; white pulp - has lymphocytes, and searching pathogens)
Salivary glands - produce saliva and are a solvent in cleansing the teeth, dissolving food chemicals so you can taste.
Tongue - moves food around in the mouth, assists in swallowing food, articulation of speech, tase
Teeth - incisors cut and shear food, canines hold and tear food, premolars crush food, molars grind food
Pancreas - produces pancreatic juices, and secrete glucose and triglycerides
Gallbladder - stores and concentrates biles
Liver -
where does amylase come from
The pancreas and the salivary glands
Large intestine
Cecum - 2-3” long, a blind pouch located in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen
Colon - ascending; transverse; descending; sigmoid
Rectum: the last 7-8” of the intestinal tube
Small intestine
Duodenum: shortest section of the small ingestion that attaches to the pyloric end of the stomach (10”)
Jejunum: the point at which the small intestine turns abruptly forward and downward
Ileum - 12’ long and marks the minimal line of demarcation between the jejunum and ileum
Where is water absorbed
Where are nutrients absorbed
90% of water is absorbed in the small intestine
Nutrients are absorbed in the jejunum of the small intestine
Carbohydrate digestion
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth and ends in the small intestine
- the primary goal for carbs is to break down from glycogen into glucose and coming into the cells
- carbohydrates take up 45-65% of total calorie intake. 4 kcals/gram
Protein digestion
Proteases catalyze the hydrolysis of proteins and each kind of protease then catalyzes the breaking apart of a specific kind of peptide bond
- mechanical begins in the mouth and ends in the intestines. Chemical begins in the stomach and ends in the small intestine
- 4 kcals/gram
Lipid digestion
When fats become insoluble in water and must then be emulsified
- the majority of lipid digestion occurs in the small intestine.
- 9 kcals/gram
Serosa layer
The “serous” layer, which is the outermost layer of the GI tract wall, and is actually the visceral layer of the peritoneum
- it lines the abdominal pelvic cavity and covers the organs
- the fold of the serous membrane shown connects the parietal and visceral portions called the mesentery
Muscular is
- the “muscular” layer, the thick layer of muscle tissue that wraps itself around the submucosa,
- uses segmental contraction, and peristaltic movements
- out longitudinal, inner circular, oblique
Submucosa
- the layer of the digestive tube that is compassed of connective tissue (has numerous small glands, blood vessels, and parasympathetic nerves that form the submucosa plexus)
Mucosa
- the mucous layer, the innermost layer of the GI wall which faces the lumen.
- is the absorptive and major secretory layer
- chief cells - Pepsinogen; parietal cells - hydrochloric acid; mucous - mucus; argentaffin - serotonin and histamine; g-cells - gastrin
Ureters
Urethra
Urinary bladder
- muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder
- 3 layers of smooth muscles, lined with epithelial cells, stores urine (600 - 1,000ml)
- Carrie urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. Two sphincters that control this
Nephrons
The functional unit of the kidney (1 million per kidney)
Water coming in and out
The amount of water coming in must equal the amount coming out
- water from food accounts for 20-25% of total fluid intake
- water is 31.4%/ beverages is 43.6%
Polyuria
Oliguria
Anuria
Polyuria - excessive urine production (>2.5 L/day)
Oliguria- decreased urine production (300-500ml/day)
Anuria - virtual absence of urine production (<50 ml/day)
Antidiuretic hormone regulates what
Water balance
Increase or decrease of thirst
Influences water reabsorption in kidneys
Filtration
The movement of water and protein-free volutes from plasma in the glomerulus, across the capsular membrane, and into the capsular space
Reabsorption
Tubes -> blood
Secretion
Blood -> tubes
EPO
Stimulates the profusion of red blood cells
- triggers the increase in red blood cell production in bone marrow
Aldosterone
An adrenal hormone that regulates sodium excretion
- increases Na+ reabsorption from the distal tubule and collecting duct
Diaphysis
The main shaft-like portion, hollow, cylindrical and thick with compact bone
Epiphyses
At the distal and proximal ends of the bone that provide points of muscle attachments and stability to the joints
Chondrocyte
- product the tough, rubbery ground substance for cartilage
- found in the lacunae, and are similar to osteocytes
- responsible for formation of cartilage
Osteoclast
Osteoblast
Osteocyte
- “bone - destroying”/ “bone - reabsorbing”
- “bone - building”
- “mature cells”
Osteoporosis
Excessive bone loss
Osteopenia
Bone loss
Osteogenesis
The forming of new bone
Red and yellow bone marrow
Red -> prominent in children and infants -> producing of red blood cells
Yellow -> prominent in older adults (what is being replaced by adipocytes
Parathyroid hormone
Increases when blood Ca++ falls
Stimulates osteoclasts to secrete more bone-dissolving enzymes
Calcitonin
Secretion increases when blood levels of Ca++ are high
Stimulates osteoblasts to add calcium and phosphate to bone
What is it called when two bones meet
Joints or articulation
Synovial
Uniaxial - one axis and one plane
Bi axial - two of both
Multiaxail - three or more o both
Axial and appendicular
Axial - skull, vertebra, ribs
Appendicular - the limbs
Two main parts of the nephrons
Renal corpuscle: glomerulus (capillaries), Bowman capsule (glomerular capsule)
Renal tubule: proximal ovulated tubule, Henley loop (nephron loop), distal consulates tubule
Inspired air
Expired air
Oxygen - 20.93, carbon dioxide - 0.03, nitrogen - 79.04
Oxygen - 14-17, carbon dioxide - 3-6, nitrogen - balance
Oxygen transportation
CO2 transportation
Hemoglobin, plasma
Hemoglobin, plasma, carbonic acid
Metabolism how do we burn calories overall
Basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate (60-70%)
Physical activity (10-30%)
Thermogenesis (10%)
