Exam2Lec6Blood Flashcards
What are the different specialized CT
Cartilage, Bone, Adipose tissue, Blood, Hematopoietic tissue, Lymphatic tissue
Blood is…
is a fluid specialized connective tissue which consists of cells and an extracellular components.
It circulates through cardiovascular system (total volume in the adult 6 L).
Some blood cells leave the circulation and migrate to the connective tissue proper.
What is the permanent resident(s) of CT proper, specialized CT, Embryonic CT and wandering/transient cells that migrate from the blood?
- CT Proper: Fibroblasts
- Specialized CT: Macrophages, Adipose cells, and Mast cells
- Embryonic CT: Mesenchymal Stem Cells
- Wandering/Transient Cells that migrated from the Blood Specialized CT: Lymphocytes, Plasma cells, Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Monocytes
Macrophaged originated from where and as what?
- Macrophages originated from the blood as monocytes which migrated to tissues.
- Mast cells are functionally related to what?
- Both of them are derived from what?
- related to Basophils
- both are derived from the same blood hematopoietic stem cell precursor.
What does the blood consist of?
- Cells and their derivaties
- Cells
- Plasma
What are the cells and blood’s derivatives?
- Cells=RBC (erythrocytes), WBCs (leukocytes)+ platelets (thrombocytes)
- Plasma= albumin (protein)+immunogoblins (antibodies)+fibrinogen (clotting factor
- What is the relative volume of rbc and plasma when centrifuged?
- What only consitiutes only 1% of blood vol?
- The relative volume of red blood cells is ~40% and plasma ~55%.
- The buffy coat: leukocytes (WBCs) and platelets constitute only 1% of blood volume.
What is plasma mainly made up of?
- mainly water
- protein (albumin- maintains osmotic pressure, immunoglobulins-antibodies, fibrinogen-participate in blood coagulation)
- other solutes: electrolytes, nutrients (amino acids, glucose), hormones, vitamins, lipids.
RBC, are there more in males or females?
males
What is hematocrit?
The volume of packed erythrocytes in a sample of blood
- is hematocrit higher or lower for males and females?
- What happens if it is lower than normal
- Males have more
- In Anemia there is reduced volume of packed erythrocytes
Explain the blood after it has been centrifuged
- Plasma: proteins+clotting factors->~50% of sample
- Buffy coat: WBCs+platelets_> ~1% of sample
- RBCs: erythrocytes->~40%
- Blood was collected in presence of anticoagulants such as sodium citrate or heparin.
How do we get blood clot and serum instead of the normal plasma/buffy coat/RBC
Blood removed from the circulatory system without addition of anticoagulants, such as sodium citrate or heparin, and left to coagulate, will separate into blood clot and serum.
What does a blood clot contain?
A blood clot contains formed elements such as fibrin network (an insoluble protein) with trapped cells.
What is serum?
is plasma that lacks coagulation factors, such as fibrinogen (a soluble protein).
Different from plasma
What happens when blood is removed without anticoagulants?
- Serum = plasma that does NOT have fibrinogen (clotting factor)
- Blood clot = fibrinogen (clotting factor) + blood cells
Plasma contains what? what does serum contain?
- Plasma: albumin, fibrinogen
- serum: lacks fibroinogen
RBC
Nuceli:
Shape:
Stain:
Circulation:
Fxn:
Nuceli: anucleate (no nucleus)
Shape: biconvae disc
Stain: pink (eosin dt to high conc. of hemoglobin
Circulation= 120 days ⭐️
Fxn= transport O2 +Co2
What is tissue fluid?
similar to blood plasma in: content of ions and diffusible substances; low weight plasma protein (a small precentage of which passes thru capillaries due to hydrostatic pressure of arteriolar blood.
What plasma protein maintains osmotic pressure? What does it cause? ⭐️
albumin: exerts concentration gradient between blood and extracellular tissue fluids.
Albumin maintains pressure on the blood vessel wall “_ _ _” which assures the correct proportion of blood to tissue fluid volume.
Colloid osmotic pressure
If the balance is lost and albumin leaks out of the BV into the loose CT, then what happens?
then the colloid osmotic pressure of the blood decreases and causes fluid to leak out into tissues which then accumulates
* It is often manifested by swelling of the ankles.
What happens when there are high levels of albumin?
increase osomtic pressure-> pulls fluid into the vessel
What does basic dyes stain and acidic dyes stain in blood
- Basic dyes stain: nuclei, granules of basophils, and cytoplasmic RNA;
- Acidic dyes stain: erythrocytes and granules of eosinophils
What are the cellular elements of the blood (7 things)
- neutrophil
- lymphocyte
- eosinophil
- Monocyte
- Basophil
- Platelets
- Erythrocytes (RBC)
How can erythocyes pass through small BV?
Erythrocytes are very elastic and deformable and they can easily pass through the smallest blood vessels and narrowest capillaries.
What does erythrocytes contain?
Contain hemoglobin, a protein which binds oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- The disk shape of erythocytes faciliate what?
- What does it allow?
- The disk shape (better then any other cell shape e.g. spherical) - facilitates the gas exchange.
- It allows more hemoglobin molecules to be close to the plasma membrane.
Which one is oxygenated and which one is deoxygented blood?
- bright red oxygenated blood (left)
- Dark red deoxygenated blood (right)
- Hemoglobin constists of what?
- Each one of these is complexed to what?
- Consists of four polypeptide chains of globin (a, B, delta and gamma)
- Each one is complexed to an iron-contraining heme group (each heme group can reversitble bind one oxygen molcule)
What are the types of hemoglobin?
- HbA (2 a’s and 2 B chains) most prevalent in adults (96%)
- HbA2 (2 a and 2 delta chains)- 1.5-3% of hemaoglobin in adults
- HbF (2 a and 2 gamma chains)- main type in fetus
Mutations in the genes encoding globin chains can cause what?
disorders in hemoglobin production
What is sickle cell disease caused by?
single point mutation in the gene that encodes beta-globin chains of hemoglobin A (HbA) and that hemoglobin is designed sickle hemoglobin (Hbs)
Many of the erythrocytes become sickle-shaped at _ oxygen tension and they are more _ then normal cells.
Many of the erythrocytes become sickle-shaped at low oxygen tension and they are more rigid then normal cells.
What happens with sickle cells and endothelial surface? what does it cause?
- They adhere more readily to endothelial surface, pile up in the capillaries and deprive parts of tissues of oxygen and nutrients.
- the obstruction of a large vessel may lead to stroke.
What is spectrin
actin cross linking protein: cross link actin filaments with each other and also other actin- cross linking proteins in erythrocytes
Explain how the erythrocytes membrane is organized
- Peripheral membrane proteins: organized into hexagonal lattice network composed of cytoskeletal proteins, e.g. spectrin
- Integral membrane proteins (Glycophorin and Band3) have attached antigens: A, B, or 0 (glycoproteins and glycolipids); they determine blood groups
What is jaundice?
excessive breakdown of red blood cells, excess of the pigment bilirubin, yellowing of the skin or the sclera
What is jaundice in hemolytic anemias (two examples) and their shapes
- Example1: hereditary spherocytosis(spherical shape) via mutation of proteins in ankyrin complex
- Example 2: hereditary elliptocytosis (elliptical shape) via mutation of spectrin molecules
- What are the 5 types of human leukocytes and What granules have?
Granulocytes: have granules that stain specifically with certain dyes.
* neutrophils (60%), eosinophils (2-5%), basophils (0.5%)
* have 1* (azurophilic) grandules and 2* (specific) granules
Agranulocytes:
* lymphocytes-B and T cells (30%) and monocytes (3-8%)
* Have only 1* (azurophilic) granules
What granules does neutrophils contain?
- azurophilic granules (primary granules).
- lysozymes for inflammation (secondary granules)
- 3* granules= metalloproeinases (MMPs)
How does neutophils leave the blood?
Neutrophil migration
crawling between endothelial cells into the connective tissue toward the site of injury and perish in 1-2 days.
What is our first line of defense against bacterial infection (Innate Immunity) ⭐️
neutrophils
produced in bone marrow
Neutrophile contain many or one nucleus?
Neutrophils contain multilobe nucleus and are often called polymorphonuclear cells
How is chromatin arranged in neutrophils?
The chromatin has a characteristic arrangement with heterochromatin being at the periphery of the nucleus and euchromatin in the center of the nucleus.
What is the drumstick appendage on a neutrophil?
In neutrophils the Barr body forms a “drumstick appendage” on one of the nuclear lobes. This represents the second X chromosome of the female.
Repressed X chromosome=
neutrophil
barr body
Circulating neutrophils interact with endothelium to attach through what?
adhesion molecules (integrin and s-Le carbohydrate on neutrophils)
Intergrin are activated by what? where do they bind?
neutrophils
Integrins activated by chemokines from endothelial cells bind to ICAM-1
Neutrophils extend _ and migrate through previously opened junction by _ and _ released from the mast cells.
Neutrophil migration
- Neutrophils extend pseudopods and migrate through previously opened junction by histamine and heparin released from the mast cells.
phagocytizes abcteria via degranulation
Once at the site of injury, neutrophil must do what?
Neutrophil migration
recognize foreign substance, e.g., bacteria, and phagocytes it.
What is released to digest foreign material
Neutrophil migration
Specific and azurophilic granules release enzymes, and digest foreign material
Most neutrophils die and together with dead bacteria accumulate as _.
Neutrophil migration
pus
- Specific granules (secondary) are what?
- What do they medinate
- what do they contain?
- Specific granules (secondary) are the smallest, numerous, and not very well visible.
- inflammatory response.
- contain bacteriostatic and bactericidal agents such as lysozyme.
What aids in neutrophil crawling which is special to them
3*: Metaloproteinases (MMPs)
What granules does basophils contain?
specific granules containing histamine + vasoactive reagents to dilation of small blood vessels), slow reacting substances (SRS), eosinophil chemotactic factor, and heparin (anti-coagulant).
What happens when antigens bind to IgE on the surface of basophil?
What is the consquence?
Ags bind IgE on basophil surface
* degranulation of 2 (specific) granules with vasoactive agents
* Consequence: vascular disturbances, hypersensitivity, and anaphylaxis.
What are the lysosomes of basophils
Azurophilic grandules
What do mast cells contain?
granules with vasoactive (histamine, heparin etc) and immunoreactive substances
Just like basophils but just in CT
What is the difference from mast cells and basophiles?
They do the same exact thing but basophil are in blood and mast cells are in CT
- Where do mast cells arise from?
- What do they mediate?
- What happens at localized and site specific spots?
- What may it cause?
- arise from bone marrow stem cells (b cells lymphocytes)
- mediate inflammatory response
- degranulation of mast cells – localized and site specific
- may cause systemic hypersensitivity reaction, allergy and anaphylaxis
What is the mast cell staining?
Where are mast cells found?
- toluidine stain
- Found in CT near blood vessels
Explain what happens in allergic reaction
What granules does eosinophils contain?
1* (azurophilic granules)= lysomoes
Specific granules: dense crystalloid body contain:
* major basic protein, eosinophil peroxidase ⭐️, neurotoxin and eosinophil cationic protein
* all of them are directed against helminth parasites
* histaminase which degrade substances released by mast cells and basophils
What is the purpose of azurophilic granules in eosinophils?
are lysosomes (lysosomal acid hydrolases involved in destruction of parasites and hydrolysis of Antibody-Antigen complexes)
Eosinophils are attracted to specific locations by what?
chemotactic factors released from the complement system, basophils, mast cells, and parasites.
Eosinophils are unusually elevated in blood or intestinal loose connective tissue and other sites when associated with what?
- allergic reaction,
- chronic inflammation
- helminthic parasitic infections
What is this
Eosinophil
What is this
Basophil
monocyte:
* Nuclei =
* Shape =
* Stain =
* Circulation =
* Fxn =
- Nuclei = mono-lobed; “C”-shaped or bean shaped nucleus
- Shape = largest circular cell in a blood smear
- Stain = light d/t lack granules
- Circulation = 1-3 days (longer than neutrophils
- Fxn = innate immune response
What is the relationship between monocytes and macrophanges ?
Mono leave the blood then turn into macrophages in the tissue to be an ag presenting cell and phagocytize bacteria (innate immune)
use the same movement system as neutrophils
In CT, what are monocytes doing?
they synthesizing more cytoplasm increasing their capacity for phagocytosis;
Macrophages as the _ can also ingest (phagocytose) microbes and destroy the ingested microbes in _ vesicles
Macrophages as the neutrophils can also ingest (phagocytose) microbes and destroy the ingested microbes in intracellular vesicles
What can monocytes become in bone?
osteoclasts
What does a macrophage look like under microscope?
- difficult to identify: irregularly shaped cells
- cytoplasm contains granules and/or vacuoles.
- nucleus is irregular.
lymphocytes:
* Nuclei =
* Shape =
* Stain =
* Circulation =
* Fxn=
immunocompetent cells
* Nuclei = large circular nucleus takes up entire cell
* Shape = small circular cell (slightly bigger than RBCs)
* Stain = large nucleus stains dark
* Circulation = N/A
* Fxn = cell-mediated + humoral immune responses
(T cells, B cells, and Natural Killer cells (NK))
What are T cells and B cells involved in
lumphocytes
- T cells- have long life span and they are involved in cell-mediated immunity
* Th (helper)-> CD4 (MHC-2)
* Tc (cytotoxic)-> CD8 (MHC-1) - B-cells have variable life span, when activated (Plasma cell) produce antibody.
What can lymphocytes do?
Lymphocytes may re-circulate after leaving the bloodstream.
they can leave and come back
What cells is for colonality and antigen presenting?
Colon: B cells
AP: T cells
- What are plasma cells producing?
- Where are they derived from?
-Antibody producing
-B cell derived
What do plasma cells look like under light microscope
- basophilic cytoplasm (rER), except for a small pale area near the nucleus which represent the Golgi apparatus
- The chromatin in the nucleus has “cart wheel” appearance
What is the fxn of rER in plasma cells?
-rER (basophilia) capacity to produce & package and secrete immunoglobulins
What are the 4 zones of platelets (thrombocytes)
- Peripheral zone: cell membrane
- Structural zone: cytoskeleton (actin, myosin, microtubules)
- Organelle zone: mitochondria, peroxisomes, glycogen, and 3 types of granules
- Membrane zone :2 types of membrane channels
Where are platelets derived from?
- Derived from large polyploid megakaryocytes in bone marrow
What are the cytoplasmic granules of the oranelle zone
serotonin (vasoconstrictor), histamine and adenosine diphosphate (ADP), fibrinogen, coagulation factors, plasminogen, platelet-derived growth factor (vessel repair, blood coagulation, and platelet aggregation).
platelets (thrombocytes):
* Nuclei =
* Shape =
* Stain =
* Circulation =
* Fxn =
- Nuclei = anucleate (i.e., no nucleus)
- Shape = small circular discs (smaller than RBCs)
- Stain = pink (light) d/t absence of nucleus
- Circulation = 8-10 days
- Fxn = blood clotting + tissue repair
What promotes platelet adhesion?
What does this trigger?
- Injured blood vessel and exposed connective tissue at the damaged site
- Adhesion of platelets to the damaged site triggers their degranulation and release of serotonin, adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and thromboxaneA2.
What are the events leading to the restoration of hte normal blood flow
- 1st , Serotonin – a vasoconstrictor, causes the vascular smooth muscle to contract reducing blood flow at the injury site
- 2nd, ADP and thromboxaneA2 cause platelet aggregation forming primary hemostatic plug
- 3rd, Soluble fibrinogen is converted to fibrin which forms loose mesh over the initial plug and secondary hemostatic plug is formed. The blood flow returns to normal.
Red blood cells are entrapped in a loose mesh of fibrin fibers to form what?
an impermeable chemostatic plug
