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Exam 2 Flashcards

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0
Q

This section of the nucleus is the location of ribosomal RNA synthesis.

A

Nucleolus

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1
Q

This organelle consists of many flattened membrane stacks.

A

Golgi apparatus

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2
Q

This organelle is an extensive network of membrane and can account for over have of the membranes in a cell

A

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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3
Q

Photosynthesis occurs inside of this organelle.

A

Chloroplast

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4
Q

The location of the majority of the DNA in a the cell.

A

Nucleus

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5
Q

This organelle is filled with digestive enzymes.

A

Lysosome

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6
Q

This organelle acts as the “shipping and receiving center” of the cell.

A

Golgi apparatus

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7
Q

This the majority of ATP production in the cell occurs within this organelle.

A

Mitochondria

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8
Q

The rough regions of this organelle have bound ribosome.

A

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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9
Q

This organelle is surrounded by double membrane that is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.

A

Nucleus

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10
Q

This organelle is found in plant cells but not in animal cells.

A

Chloroplast

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11
Q

This organelle receives proteins from the ER, sorts them into different compartments, and the sends them to various destinations within the cell

A

Golgi apparatus

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12
Q

This structure, which allows cells to move, contains microtubules.

A

Flagella

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13
Q

During this phase, all of the kinetic bores of the sister chromatids are bound to microtubule and the chromosome line up in an imaginary plane between. The two spindle poles

A

Metaphase

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14
Q

The nuclear envelope reforms during this phase

A

Telophase

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15
Q

During this phase, the nuclear envelope fragments and microtubules start to invade the space that the nucleus once occupied.

A

Prometaphase

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16
Q

During this phase,nth cohesion proteins that are holding the sister chromatids breaks, and the resulting daughter chromosomes began moving to their respective spindle poles.

A

Anaphase

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17
Q

During this phase,nth sister chromatids start to condense into tight structures.

A

Prophase

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18
Q

Describe what occurs during the metaphase

A
  • the centrosomes are now fully at the opposite poles of the cell
  • the chromosomes convene on the metaphase plate
  • for each chromosome, the kinetochores of each sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles
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19
Q

The centrosomes are now fully at the opposite poles of the cell

A

Metaphase

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20
Q

The chromosomes convene on the metaphase plate

A

Metaphase

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21
Q

For each chromosome, the kinetochores of each sister chromatid are attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles

A

Metaphase

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22
Q

Each duplicates chromosomes appears as two identical sister chromatids joined together at their centromeres and all along their arms

A

Prophase

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23
Q

The chromosome condense, becoming more tightly coiled
—-Discrete chromosome are observable with a light microscope
chromosome condense and become visible

A

Prophase

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24
Q

The motic spindle begins to form

A

Prophase

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25
Q

The centrosomes start to migrate to opposite poles of the cell. (They pushed there by lengthening microtubules form the aster.)

A

Prophase (what happens when the mitotic spindle begins to form)

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27
Q

Describe what happens in the stage of prophase

A
  • The chromosomes condense, becoming more tightly coiled OR chromosome becomes condense and visible
  • Each duplicated chromosome appears as two dental sister chromatids joined together at their centromeres and all along their arms
  • The mitotic spindle begins to form
    • The centrosomes start to migrate to oposites poles of the cell. (They are pushed there by lengthening microtubules form the aster)
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28
Q

Describe what happens in the stage of prometaphase

A
  • The nuclear envelope fragments
  • Microtubules from the asters start to invade the area that was formerly occupied by the nucleus
  • The chromosomes are fully condensed
  • Kinetochores form at the centromere of each chromosome.
  • Some of the microtubules attach to the kinetochores
  • Microtubules that don’t interact with kinetochore )non-kinetochore microtubules) interact with microtubules form the opposite pole of the spindle
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29
Q

The nuclear envelope fragments

A

prometaphase

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30
Q

Microtubules from the asters start to invade the area that was formerly occupied by the nucleus

A

prometaphase

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31
Q

The chromosomes are fully condensed

A

prometaphase

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32
Q

Kinetochores form at the centromere of each chromosome

A

prometaphase

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33
Q

Some of the microtubules attach to the kinetochores

A

prometaphase

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34
Q

Microtubules that don’t interact with kinetochores (non-kinetochores microtubules) interact with microtubules coming from the opposite poles of the spindle

A

prometaphase

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35
Q

starts with the cleavage of the cohesion proteins that are holding the two sister chromatids together

A

anaphase

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36
Q

the two sister chromatids part and are not know as daughter chromosomes

A

anaphase

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37
Q

the daughter chromosomes start moving toward opposite ends of the cells

A

anaphase

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38
Q

Non-kinetochore microtubules from different poles overlap and motor proteins that connect the microtubules start walking them away from one another (using energy form ATP)

A

anaphase

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39
Q

At the end of this phase there should be a complete set of chromosomes at each pole of the cell

A

anaphase

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40
Q

Describe what happens during anaphase

A
  • Anaphase starts with the cleavage of cohesion proteins that are holding the sister chromatids together
  • –The two sister chromatids part and are now know s daughter chromosomes
  • The daughter chromosomes start moving toward opposite ends of the cell
  • -Non-kinetochore microtubules from different poles overlap and motor proteins that connect microtubules start walking them away from one another using energy from ATP
  • –The elongates the cell an moves the poles away from each other
  • At the end of anaphase, there should be a complete set of chromosomes at each pole of the cell
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41
Q

Two daughter nuclei start to form in the new cells

A

telophase

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42
Q

Nuclear envelop from the parent cell’s nuclear enveolpw and other portions of the endomembrane system

A

telophase

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43
Q

Nucleoli reappears

A

telophase

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44
Q

Describe what happens in telophase

A
  • Two daughter nuclei start to form in the new cells
  • Nuclear envelope from the parent cell’s nuclear envelope and other portions of the endomembrane
  • Nucleoli reappear
  • The chromosomes become less condensed
  • Mitosis is now complete
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45
Q

the chromosomes become less condensed

A

telophase

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46
Q

mitosis is now complete

A

telophase

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47
Q

the first Gap phase

A

G1

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48
Q

The cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasm

A

G1

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49
Q

In a typical human cell, this could take 5-6 hours

A

G1

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50
Q

Synthesis phase

A

S phase

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51
Q

The cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasm

A

S phase and G2 phase

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52
Q

The chromosomes are duplicated in this phase

A

S phase

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53
Q

Each set of duplicate chromosomes are called sister chromatids

A

S phase

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54
Q

In a typical human cell, this could take 10-12 hours

A

S phase

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55
Q

Second Gap phase

A

G2 phase

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56
Q

The cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasm

A

S phase and G2 Phase

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57
Q

In a typical human cell, this could take 4-6 hours

A

G2 phase

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58
Q

Describe the G1 phase

A

it is the first gap phase, the cells grow by producing proteins and cytoplasm (happens in every phase), and in a typical human cell it could take up to 5-6 hours

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59
Q

Describe the S phase

A

it is the synthesis phase, the cells grow by producing proteins and cytoplasm ( like G1phase) the chromosomes are duplicated and each set of duplicate chromosomes are called sister chromatids, in a typical human cell this could tie 10-12 hours

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60
Q

Describe G2 phase

A

is the second Gap phase. the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasm as in all the phase in the gap, in a typical human cell this could take 4-6 hours

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61
Q

this describes the property of molecules, such as phospholipids, that have one hydrophilic end and one hydrophobic end

A

amphipathic

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62
Q

describe amphipathic

A

this describes the property of molecules, such as phospholipids,that have one hydrophilic end and one hydrophobic end

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63
Q

The breakage of a cell caused by being immersed in a hypotonic solution

A

plasmolysis

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64
Q

describe plasmolysis

A

the breakage of a cell caused by being immersed in a hypotonic

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65
Q

“Cell eating”, the take-up of a large object by a cell The large object is taken into the cell inside of vesicle

A

phagocytosis

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66
Q

describe phagocytosis

A

“Cell eating, the take-up of a large object by a cell. The large object is taken into the cell inside of a vesicle

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67
Q

“Cell drinking”, The take-up of solute (dissolved molecules) by a cell. The dissolved molecules

A

pinocytosis

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68
Q

describe pinocytosis

A

“cell drinking” The take-up of solute, the dissolved molecules

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69
Q

the contraction of a cell caused by being immersed in a hypertonic solution

A

crenation

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70
Q

describe crenation

A

the contraction of a cell caused by being immersed in a hypertonic solution

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71
Q

what is mitosis

A

mitosis is the process that ensures the equal division of chromosomes when one parent cell divides into two daughter cells. it ensures that each daughter cell receives on complete copy of the parental cell’s DNA

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72
Q

mitosis is the process that ensures the equal division of chromosomes when one parent cell divides into two daughter cells. It ensures that each daughter cell receives on complete copy of the parental cell’s DNA

A

mitosis

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73
Q

bulk transport, the transport of a large amount of solute or a very large particle across the membrane, occurs through

A

endocytosis and exocytosis ( the beginning processes and purpose of endocytosis and exocytosis)

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74
Q

a vacuole is generated in the cell that contains the solute to be released

A

exocytosis

75
Q

this vacuole fuses with the plasm membrane

A

exocytosis

76
Q

this causes the solute to be released to the outside of the cell

A

exocytosis

77
Q

describe the process and purpose of exocytosis

A
  • a vacuole is generated in the cell that contains the solute to be released
  • this vacuole fuses with the plasma membrane
  • this causes the solute to be released to the outside of the cell
78
Q

describe the process and purpose of endocytosis

A
  • the cell takes in biological molecules and particulate mater by forming a new vesicle
  • the three main types of endocytosis
    1. phagocytosis
    2. pinocytosis
    3. receptor-mediated endocytosis
79
Q

cell eating

A

phagocytosis

80
Q

the cell engulf a particle by wrapping pseudopodia around it

A

phagocytosis

81
Q

the particle is packaged in a vesicle

A

phagocytosis

82
Q

the cell engulfs droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles

A

pinocytosis

83
Q

this creates vesicle filled with a solution the solutes that are outside the cell

A

pinocytosis

84
Q

allows cells to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances that may be quite dilute in the surrounding solution

A

receptor-mediated endocytosis

85
Q

receptor proteins, which bind to specific molecules (called a ligand) are embedded in the membrane

A

receptor-mediated endocytosis

86
Q

these receptors are located in specific sections of the membrane called coated pits

A

receptor-mediated endocytosis

87
Q

when the receptor binds to the ligand, it is taken into the cell in a vesicle

A

receptor-mediated endocytosis

88
Q

there is a lower concentration of penetrating solute outside the cell than inside the cell

A

hypotonic solution

89
Q

water flow into the cell

A

hypotonic solution

90
Q

causes animal cells to swell and possibly burst

A

hypotonic solution

91
Q

cause plant cells to swell, but the cell wall prevents them from bursting

A

hypotonic solution

92
Q

plant cells in this state are call turgid

A

hypotonic solution

93
Q

plant cells are generally healthiest in

A

hypotonic solution

94
Q

the concentration of non penetrating solute that is the same outside and inside of the cell

A

isotonic solution

95
Q

the rate of water leaving the cell is the same rate of water entering the cell

A

isotonic solution

96
Q

there is no change in the shape of animal or plant cells

A

isotonic solution

97
Q

animal cells are generally healthier in

A

isotonic solution

98
Q

the higher the concentration of non penetrating solute outside the cell than inside the cell

A

hypertonic solution

99
Q

water will flow out the cell

A

hypertonic solution

100
Q

animal cells will lose water, shrivel, and possibly die

A

hypertonic solution

101
Q

plant cell will pull away from the cell wall and possibly burst through plasmolysis

A

hypertonic solution

102
Q

The movement of solute that is unevenly distributed in a solution

A

diffusion

103
Q

moves from a high concentration to a low concentration

A

diffusion

104
Q

reaches equilibrium when the concentration is even throughout the solution

A

diffusion

105
Q

describe diffusion

A

the movement of solute that is unevenly distributed in a a solution
Moves from a high concentration to a low concentration
Reaches equilibrium when the concentration is even throughout the solution

106
Q

the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

A

osmosis

107
Q

the water will move from a low concentration of a solute to a high concentration of a solute

A

osmosis

108
Q

Describe osmosis

A
  • the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

- the water will move from a low concentration of a solute to a high concentration of a solute

109
Q

Where proteins allow solute to diffuse across a membrane more quickly

A

facilitated diffusion

110
Q

especially useful in the case of charged and polar molecules that have difficulty diffusing across the membrane

A

facilitated diffusion

111
Q

only will work in the direction of diffusion (from high concentration to low)

A

facilitated diffusion

112
Q

Do not require energy from the cel

A

facilitated diffusion

113
Q

channel proteins and carrier proteins

A

two main type of proteins that allow facilitated diffusion

114
Q

The two main type of proteins that allow facilitated diffusion

A

channel proteins and carrier protein

115
Q

provides a corridor for the solute to cross the membrane

A

channel protein

116
Q

channel protein

A

provides a corridor for the solute to cross the membrane

117
Q

Undergoes a conformational change that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane

A

carrier protein

118
Q

the shape changes maybe triggered by the binding and release of the transported molecule

A

carrier protein

119
Q

carrier protein

A
  • undergoes a conformational change that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane
  • The shape changes maybe triggered by the binding and release of the transported molecule
120
Q

Proteins pump soute from one side of the membrane to the other

A

active transport

121
Q

can move solute against a gradient

A

active transport

122
Q

requires energy from the cell usually in the form of ATP

A

active transport

123
Q

active transport

A
  • proteins pump solute from one side of the membrane to the other
  • can move solute against a gradient
  • requires energy from the cell usually in the form of ATP
124
Q

molecules can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and cross it easily

A

nonpolar molecules

125
Q

incluses hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and oxygen

A

nonpolar molecules

126
Q

pass only slowly through a lipid membrane

A

poplar molecules

127
Q

includes glucose and other sugars

A

polar molecules

128
Q

even water is slow to travel across the membrane

A

polar molecules

129
Q

Briefly describe how or if ion, polar molecules and non-polar molecules can move across cell membranes

A

Non-polar molecules can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and cross easily and it involves hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide, and oxygen

  • polar molecules pass only slowly through a lipid membrane, even water moves slowly….and includes glucose and sugar,
  • charged atoms or molecules (and the surrounding shell of water) have even greater difficulty traveling across a membrane
130
Q

the surrounding cell of water have even greater difficulty traveling across a membrane

A

charged atoms or molecules

131
Q

some proteins provide a hydrophobic channel across the membrane that selects for a particular molecule

A

the role active transport plays in membrane proteins and carbohydrates in the cell

132
Q

some proteins shuttle a substance from one side of the membrane to the other by chafing shape

A

the role active transport plays in membrane proteins and carbohydrates in the cell

133
Q

some of these proteins hydrolyze ATP to actively pump substances across the membrane

A

the role active transport plays in membrane proteins and carbohydrates in the cell

134
Q

some enzymes are inserted in the membrane

A

the role enzyme activity plays in membrane proteins and carbohydrates in the cell

135
Q

sometimes associated teams of enzymes associate together in the membrane

A

the role enzyme activity plays in membrane proteins and carbohydrates in the cell

136
Q

chromosomes continue to condense

A

prometaphase

137
Q

briefly describe prophase

A 
chromosomes become condensed and visible
spindle fibers emerge from the centromosomes
the mitotic spindle forms
nuclear envelope breaks down
nucleolus disappears
138
Q

1) Name the three domains of life and briefly describe the characteristics of organisms in that domain.

A

Eukarya: Includes all eukaryotic cells (cells that have a nucleus and internal membrane-bound compartments)
Archaea: Includes prokaryotic cells that lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls. Members of domain Archaea are more closely related to member of domain Eukarya than they are to members of domain Bacteria.
Bacteria: Includes prokaryotic that have peptidoglycan in their cell walls.

139
Q

Name the six kingdoms of life

A
  1. Kingdom Archaebacteria
  2. Kingdom Eubacteria
  3. Kingdom Protista
  4. Kingdom Fungi
  5. Kingdom Plantae
  6. Kingdom Animalia
140
Q

Name the six kingdoms of life. For each kingdom, name the domain that they are in

A
  1. Kingdom Archaebacteria Domain: Archaea
  2. Kingdom Eubacteria Domain: Eubacteria
  3. Kingdom Protista Domain: Eukarya
  4. Kingdom Fungi Domain: Eukarya
  5. Kingdom Plantae Domain: Eukarya
  6. Kingdom Animalia Domain: Eukarya
141
Q

2) Name the six kingdoms of life. For each kingdom, name the domain that they are in, give a brief description of the kingdom and name one organism that is included in that kingdom.

A
  1. Kingdom Archaebacteria Domain: Archaea Description: Includes all members of domain Archaea. Example: All members of domain Archaea are acceptable (for example, Methanobacterium or Haloquadratum)
  2. Kingdom Eubacteria Domain: Eubacteria Description: Includes all members of domain Bacteria. Example: All members of domain Bacteria are acceptable (for example, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, etc.)
  3. Kingdom Protista Domain: Eukarya Description: Single-celled eukaryotic cells that don’t fit in any other category. Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena
  4. Kingdom Fungi Domain: Eukarya Description: Single- or multi-cellular eukaryotic cells that have cell walls made of chitin. Examples: Yeast, molds, mushrooms.
  5. Kingdom Plantae Domain: Eukarya Description: Multi-cellular eukaryotes that have cell walls made of cellulose and are capable of photosynthesis. Examples: Trees, grass, flowering land plants.
  6. Kingdom Animalia Domain: Eukarya Description: Multi-cellular eukaryotes that can’t get their energy from photosynthesis. Examples: Sponges, worms, insects, vertibrates
142
Q

3) Briefly describe the characteristics that differentiate prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

A
  1. Eukaryotic cells: Have internal membrane-bound compartments, have a nucleus, have 80S (large) ribosomes
  2. Prokaryotic cells: Have NO internal membrane-bound compartments, have NO nucleus, have 70S (small) ribosomes
143
Q

a. plasma membrane

A

A bilayer of phospholipids that also contains proteins and carbohydrates. Serves to separate the inside of the cell from the outside of the cell.

144
Q

A bilayer of phospholipids that also contains proteins and carbohydrates. Serves to separate the inside of the cell from the outside of the cell.

A

a. plasma membrane

145
Q

b. cell walls (of plants):

A

A thick layer of cellulose. Protects the cell

146
Q

A thick layer of cellulose. Protects the cell

A

b. cell walls (of plants):

147
Q

c. nucleus:

A

A compartment where the cell’s DNA is stored.

148
Q

A compartment where the cell’s DNA is stored.

A

c. nucleus:

149
Q

d. nuclear envelope

A

: A double lipid membrane that seperates the inside of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. There are large pore proteins that allow molecules to pass from the inside of the nucleus to the outside of the nucleus. The outer layer of the envelope is connected to the ER.

150
Q

: A double lipid membrane that seperates the inside of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. There are large pore proteins that allow molecules to pass from the inside of the nucleus to the outside of the nucleus. The outer layer of the envelope is connected to the ER.

A

d. nuclear envelope

151
Q

e. chromatin:

A

: A structure that consists of molecules of DNA (chromosomes) which is wrapped around proteins (histones). Chromatin can have varying levels of compression.

152
Q

A structure that consists of molecules of DNA (chromosomes) which is wrapped around proteins (histones). Chromatin can have varying levels of compression.

A

e. chromatin:

153
Q

f. nucleolus

A

: A region of the nucleus (not membrane bound) where ribosomal RNA is synthesized

154
Q

: A region of the nucleus (not membrane bound) where ribosomal RNA is synthesized

A

f. nucleolus

155
Q

g. ribosomes (free and bound):

A

Ribosomes are complexes of protein and ribosomal RNA. They consist of a large and a small subunit. They are responsible for the synthesis of proteins from amino acids. Free ribosomes are floating in the cytoplasm and synthesize cytoplasmic proteins. Bound ribosomes are bound to the rough ER and are responsible for synthesizing proteins that are embedded in membranes or are inserted into the lumen of the ER and are destined for transport to other organelles or out of the cell.

156
Q

Ribosomes are complexes of protein and ribosomal RNA. They consist of a large and a small subunit. They are responsible for the synthesis of proteins from amino acids. Free ribosomes are floating in the cytoplasm and synthesize cytoplasmic proteins. Bound ribosomes are bound to the rough ER and are responsible for synthesizing proteins that are embedded in membranes or are inserted into the lumen of the ER and are destined for transport to other organelles or out of the cell.

A

g. ribosomes (free and bound):

157
Q

The ER is a large membrane network that stretches throughout the cell. The interior of the ER is called the lumen, the exterior is the cytoplasm. The smooth ER lack bound ribosomes and is responsible for breaking down toxins and synthesizing lipids in some cells.

A

h. smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER):

158
Q

h. smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER):

A

The ER is a large membrane network that stretches throughout the cell. The interior of the ER is called the lumen, the exterior is the cytoplasm. The smooth ER lack bound ribosomes and is responsible for breaking down toxins and synthesizing lipids in some cells.

159
Q

: The ER is a large membrane network that stretches throughout the cell. The interior of the ER is called the lumen, the exterior is the cytoplasm. The rough ER has bound ribosomes and is the site where the synthesis of proteins that are embedded in membranes or are inserted into the lumen of the ER and are destined for transport to other organelles or out of the cell occurs.

A

i. rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER):

160
Q

i. rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER):

A

: The ER is a large membrane network that stretches throughout the cell. The interior of the ER is called the lumen, the exterior is the cytoplasm. The rough ER has bound ribosomes and is the site where the synthesis of proteins that are embedded in membranes or are inserted into the lumen of the ER and are destined for transport to other organelles or out of the cell occurs.

161
Q

: A stack of membrane compartments. Has a cis- face and a trans- face. Acts as the shipping and receiving department of the cell. Vesicles are received in the cis- face, their contents sorted in the stacks, and new vesicles are sent out from the trans- face to other compartments, or out of, the cell.

A

j. golgi apparatus

162
Q

j. golgi apparatus

A

: A stack of membrane compartments. Has a cis- face and a trans- face. Acts as the shipping and receiving department of the cell. Vesicles are received in the cis- face, their contents sorted in the stacks, and new vesicles are sent out from the trans- face to other compartments, or out of, the cell.

163
Q

: Vacuoles that contain digestive enzymes and an acidic pH. Merge with food vacuoles to digest them or with other vacuoles to recycle cell components (autophagy).

A

k. lysosomes

164
Q

k. lysosomes

A

: Vacuoles that contain digestive enzymes and an acidic pH. Merge with food vacuoles to digest them or with other vacuoles to recycle cell components (autophagy).

165
Q

Membrane bound compartments that have various uses in the cell. Plant cells have a large central vacuole that animal cells lack

A

l. vacuoles:

166
Q

l. vacuoles:

A

Membrane bound compartments that have various uses in the cell. Plant cells have a large central vacuole that animal cells lack

167
Q

The energy powerhouse of the cell, the site of cellular respiration. Have a double membrane and features that appear to be the remnants of a prokaryotic lifestyle (circular chromosome, small ribosomes). The interior space of the second membrane is termed the mitochondrial matrix.

A

m. mitochondria

168
Q

m. mitochondria

A

The energy powerhouse of the cell, the site of cellular respiration. Have a double membrane and features that appear to be the remnants of a prokaryotic lifestyle (circular chromosome, small ribosomes). The interior space of the second membrane is termed the mitochondrial matrix.

169
Q

The site of photosynthesis in plant cells. Has three membranes, the outer membrane, the inner membrane, and the thylakoid membrane

A

n. chloroplasts:

170
Q

n. chloroplasts:

A

The site of photosynthesis in plant cells. Has three membranes, the outer membrane, the inner membrane, and the thylakoid membrane

171
Q

Protein fibers that gives the cell structure. Three major classes. Microtubules: The thickest fiber, is hollow. Composed of the protein tubulin. Involved in mitosis (the spindle fibers) and flagella/cilia. Microfiliments: The thinnest fiber. Composed of the protein actin. Is involved in giving the cell its shape, amoeboid movement, mitosis (cytokinesis). Intermediate filiments: Several different kinds of fibers, includes lamanin which makes up the nuclear lamina

A

o. cytoskeleton:

172
Q

o. cytoskeleton:

A

Protein fibers that gives the cell structure. Three major classes. Microtubules: The thickest fiber, is hollow. Composed of the protein tubulin. Involved in mitosis (the spindle fibers) and flagella/cilia. Microfiliments: The thinnest fiber. Composed of the protein actin. Is involved in giving the cell its shape, amoeboid movement, mitosis (cytokinesis). Intermediate filiments: Several different kinds of fibers, includes lamanin which makes up the nuclear lamina

173
Q

A pair of rings composed of microtubules. Found in animal cells but not plant cells. Act as the microtubule organizing center of the cell.

A

centrosome:

174
Q

centrosome:

A

A pair of rings composed of microtubules. Found in animal cells but not plant cells. Act as the microtubule organizing center of the cell.

175
Q

5) Name and briefly describe three structures that are possessed by plant cells that are not possessed by animal cells. Name and briefly describe one structure found in animal cells that is not found in plant cells

A

Plant cells have:
Cell wall: Made of cellulose. Protects the cell.
Central vacuole: Large membrane-bound compartment. Can be used for storage of water or toxins, or other roles in other plants.
Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis. See question 4 for further description.

Animal cells have;
Centriole: Two small structures composed of microtubules. Act as the microtubule organizing center. See question 4 for furter description.

176
Q

6) Briefly describe the fluid mosaic structure of membranes

A

In the fluid mosaic model, a membrane is a fluid structure with a “mosaic” of various proteins embedded in or attached to a double layer of phospholipids. The proteins and phospholipids are able to move laterally freely, but are unable to change the side of the membrane they are facing.

177
Q

7) Briefly describe one role that (each) that membrane proteins and carbohydrates play in the cell.

A

1.Transport
Some proteins provide a hydrophobic channel across the membrane that selects for a particular molecule
Some proteins shuttle a substance from one side of the membrane to the other by changing shape
Some of these proteins hydrolyze ATP to actively pump substances across the membrane
2.Enzymatic activity
Some enzymes are inserted in the membrane
Sometimes associated teams of enzymes associate together in the membrane
3.Signal transduction
Some membrane proteins (called receptors) bind to specific signaling molecules from outside of the cell
Binding to these molecules causes a shape change in the protein that relays the message into the inside of the cell
4. Cell-cell recognition
Some glycoproteins (proteins and carbohydrates) serve as specific identification tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of other cells
5. Intercellular joining
Some membrane proteins of adjacent cells hook together in various kinds of junctions
Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)
Can help stabilize the sell cell and link internal microfilaments to the ECM

178
Q

Projections of the cell that have cores of microtubules (9 + 2 arrangement). These microtubules are cross-linked and have motor proteins between them. The movement of the motor proteins causes the cilia to move.

A

q. cilia:

179
Q

q. cilia:

A

Projections of the cell that have cores of microtubules (9 + 2 arrangement). These microtubules are cross-linked and have motor proteins between them. The movement of the motor proteins causes the cilia to move.

180
Q

: Have a similar structure to cilia, but are longer and usually fewer in number.

A

r. flagella

181
Q

r. flagella

A

: Have a similar structure to cilia, but are longer and usually fewer in number.

182
Q

9) Briefly describe diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport and give examples of each.

A

Diffusion: The movement of solute that is unevenly distributed in a solution. Moves from a high concentration to a low concentration. Reaches equilibrium when the concentration is even throughout the solution.

Osmosis: The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane. The water will move from a low concentration of solute to a high concentration of solute.

Facilitated diffusion: Where proteins allow solute to diffuse across a membrane more quickly. Especially useful in the case of charged and polar molecules that have difficulty diffusing across the membrane. Only work in the direction of diffusion (from high concentration to low). Do not require energy from the cell
Two main type of proteins that allow facilitated diffusion
Channel proteins: Provide a corridor for the solute to cross the membrane
Carrier protein: Undergo a conformational change that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane. The shape changes may be triggered by the binding and release of the transported molecule

Active transport: Proteins pump solute from one side of the membrane to the other. Can move solute against a gradient. Requires energy from the cell (usually in the form of ATP).

183
Q

10) Briefly describe the difference between hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions. Compare the behavior of plant and animal cells in each of these solutions.

A

o Hypotonic solution
 There is a lower concentration of nonpenetrating solute outside the cell than inside the cell
 Water flows into the cell
 Causes animal cells to swell and possibly burst
 Causes pant cells to swell, but the cell wall prevents them from bursting
• Plant cells in this state are called turgid
• Plant cells are generally healthiest in hypotonic solutions
o Isotonic solution
 The concentration of nonpenetrationg solute is the same outside and inside of the cell
 The rate of water leaving the cell is the same as the rate of water entering the cell
 There is no change in the size or shape of animal cells or plant cells
 Animal cells are generally healthiest in isotonic solutions
o Hypertonic solution
 There is a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solute outside the cell than inside the cell
 Water will flow out of the cell
 Animal cells will lose water, shrivel, and possibly die
 Plant cells will pull away from the cell wall and possibly burst through plasmolysis

184
Q

15) Briefly describe what occurs during the following phases of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

A

• Prophase
o The chromosomes condense, becoming more tightly coiled
 Discrete chromosomes are observable with a light microscope.
o Each duplicated chromosome appears as two identical sister chromatids joined together at their centromeres and all along their arms.
o The mitotic spindle begins to form.
 The centrosomes start to migrate to opposite poles of the cell. (They are pushed there by lengthening microtubules form the aster.)
• Prometaphase
o The nuclear envelope fragments.
o Microtubules from the asters start to invade the area that was formerly occupied by the nucleus.
o The chromosomes are fully condensed.
o Kinetochores form at the centromere of each chromosome.
o Some of the microtubules attach to the kinetochores.
o Micorotubules that don’t interact with kinetochores (non-kinetochore microtubules) interact with microtubules from the opposite pole of the spindle.
• Metaphase
o The centrosomes are now fully at the opposite poles of the cell
o The chromosomes convene on the metaphase plate .
o For each chromosome, the kinetochores of each sister chromatid are attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles.
• Anaphase
o Anaphase starts with the cleavage of the cohesin proteins that are holding the two sister chromatids together.
 The two sister chromatids part and are now known as daughter chromosomes.
o The daughter chromosomes start moving toward opposite ends of the cells
 Non-kinetochore microtubules from different poles overlap and motor proteins that connect the microtubules start walking them away from one another (using energy from ATP).
 This elongates the cell and moves the poles away from each other
o At the end of anaphase, there should be a complete set of chromosomes at each pole of the cell
• Telophase
o Two daughter nuclei start to form in the new cells
o Nuclear envelopes from the parent cell’s nuclear envelope and other portions of the endomembrane system
o Nucleoli reappear
o The chromosomes become less condensed
o Mitosis is now complete

Biology (21 decks)

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