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Anatomy & Physiology Review I > Chapter 25 - Metabolism and Nutrition > Flashcards

Chapter 25 - Metabolism and Nutrition Flashcards

1
Q

What is Metabolic Reaction?

A

Metabolism:
All of the chemical reactions taking place in the body
Results from balance of Anabolic and Catabolic reactions

Catabolism:
Decomposition
Reactions that break down complex molecules into simpler one

Anabolism:
Synthesis
Reactions that combine simple molecules to make complex molecules

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2
Q

What is ATP?

A

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP):
Energy molecule that couples the 2 types of reactions

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3
Q

How does Metabolic Reaction Work?

A

1- Simple molecules such as glucose, amino acids, glycerol, and fatty acids

2- Anabolic Reaction:
Transfer energy from ATP to complex molecules
Release Heat
ATP becomes ADP + Pi

3- Complex molecules such as glycogen, proteins, and triglycerides

4- Catabolic Reaction:
Transfer energy from complex molecules to ATP
Release Heat
ADP + Pi becomes ATP

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4
Q

What is Energy Transfer?

A

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions:
One category of reactions important in energy transfer

1- Oxidation
2- Reduction

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5
Q

What is Oxidation?

A

Oxidation:

Involves removal of electrons from an atom or molecule
ex:
Conversion of Lactic Acid to Pyruvic Acid
Remove 2H ( H+ and H- )

When a substance is oxidized, the liberated H atoms are transferred by 2 Coenzymes to another compound. These are:

1- Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)
NAD+ <—– NADH + H+ Oxidation
NAD+ —–> NADH + H+ Reduction

2- Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
FADH2 <—– FAD Oxidation
FADH2 —–> FAD Reduction

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6
Q

What is Reduction?

A

Reduction:

Involves addition of electrons to a molecule
ex:
Conversion of Pyruvic Acid to Lactic Acid
Add 2H ( H+ and H- )

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7
Q

What is Oxidation-Reduction (Redox Reaction)?

A

Oxidation and Reduction are always coupled so the 2 reactions are called Redox Reactions

ex:
The Oxidation of Lactic Acid to Pyruvic Acid and the associated Reduction of NAD+ may be written as:
Lactic Acid (Reduced) and NAD+ (Oxidized)
Pyruvic Acid (Oxidized) and NADH + H+ (Reduced)

Some of the energy released during Oxidation Reactions is captured when ATP is formed
Phosphorylation:
A Phosphate group is added to ADP along with energy to form ATP
ADP + Pi + Energy —–> ATP

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8
Q

What is Carbohydrate Metabolism?

A

Carbohydrate Metabolism:
Mostly Glucose metabolism
The body’s use of glucose depends on the needs of cells:

1- ATP production
2- Amino acid synthesis
3- Glycogen synthesis
4- Triglyceride synthesis

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9
Q

How does Glucose Metabolism Start?

A

Glucose must pass through plasma membrane to be used by cell

Facilitated Diffusion makes it happen:
In most body cells, GluT molecules perform this

Insulin increases insertion of GluT Transporters into the plasma membrane increasing the rate of Facilitated Diffusion

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10
Q

What is Cellular Respiration?

A

Cellular Respiration:
Oxidation of Glucose to produce ATP

4 Sets of reactions:

1- Glycolysis
2- Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A
3- Krebs Cycle Reactions
4- Electron Transport Chain Reactions (ETC)

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11
Q

What is Glycolysis?

A

Glycolysis:
Process where a 6-Carbon Glucose molecule is split into 2 3-Carbon molecules of Pyruvic Acid

It involves 10 reactions:
1 Molecule of Glucose becomes 2 molecules of Pyruvic Acid
And releases 4 ATP and 2 NADH and 2 H+

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12
Q

What happens to Pyruvic Acid?

A

Depends on availability of oxygen

1- Anaerobic Condition:
Pyruvic Acid reduced by addition of 2H to form Lactic Acid

2- Aerobic Condition:
Most cells convert Pyruvic Acid to Acetyl Coenzyme A in Mitochondrial Matrix

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13
Q

What is Krebs Cycle?

A

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle):
Occurs in the Matrix of Mitochondria
Consists of 8 reactions
(happens twice)
(makes ATP)
(sends NADH and FADH2 to ETC)

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14
Q

What is Electron Transport Chain (ETC)?

A

ETC:
Series of electron carriers in the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

Each carrier in the chain is reduced as it picks up e- and oxidized as it gives up e-

Exergonic Reactions:
Release energy used to form ATP

This mechanism links chemical reactions with the pumping of H+ and is known as Chemiosmosis

ETC includes e- carriers:
Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)
Cytochromes
Iron-Sulfur Centers
Copper atoms
Coenzyme Q

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15
Q

What Happens inside ETC?

A

Inside the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane, the carriers are clustered into 3 complexes, each acting as a Proton Pump that expels H+:

1- NADH Dehydrogenase Complex:
FMN and 5 Fe-S Centers

2- Cytochrome b-c1 Complex:
Cyt b - Cyt c1, and an Fe-S Center

3- Cytochrome Oxidase Complex:
Cyt a, Cyt a3, and 2Cu

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16
Q

What does Cellular Respiration Generate?

A

Cellular Respiration:
Generates either 30 or 32 ATP molecules for each molecule of glucose catabolized

Reaction:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 30-32 ADPs + 30 or 32 Pi -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 30-32 ATPs
Glucose + Oxygen + ADP + Pi —–> Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP

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17
Q

What Happens to Glucose not Needed Immediately?

A

In Liver:

1- Glycogenesis:
Process of storing Glucose as Glycogen
Uses Hexokinase
Stimulated by Insulin

2- Glycogenolysis:
When ATP is needed for body activities, stored Glycogen is broken down to Glucose
Uses Phosphorylase and Phosphatase
Stimulated by Glucagon and Epinephrine

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18
Q

What is Gluconeogenesis?

A

Gluconeogenesis:
Glucose may be formed from:
Proteins
Glycerol portion of Triglycerides
Lactic Acid
Certain Amino Acids

Hormones that stimulate Gluconeogenesis:
Cortisol
Glucagon
Thyroid hormones

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19
Q

What is Lipid Metabolism?

A

Lipids:
Most are Nonpolar (hydrophobic)

Lipoproteins:
Blood Plasma is over 90% water, so lipids must be transported combined with proteins produced by Liver and Intestines

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20
Q

What are the 4 Classes of Lipoproteins?

A

1- Chylomicrons:
Transport dietary lipids to Adipose Tissue

2- Very-Low-Density Lipoproteins (VLDLs):
Transport triglycerides from Hepatocytes to Adipocytes

3- Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDLs):
Carry about 75% of the total Cholesterol in blood and deliver it to cells

4- High-Density Lipoprotein (HDLs):
Remove excess Cholesterol from body cells and the blood and transport it to the Liver for elimination

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21
Q

What is Cholesterol in Metabolism?

A

Cholesterol:
Comes from foods (eggs, dairy, organ meats)
Most synthesized by Hepatocytes

Increase in total Cholesterol levels associated with greater risk of Coronary Artery Disease

Exercise, diet, and certain drugs used to reduce high Cholesterol levels

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22
Q

What is Oxidation of Lipids?

A

Lipids may be oxidized to produce ATP
If body does not need lipids, they are stored in Adipose Tissue
Some is used as structural molecules or to synthesize other essential substances

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23
Q

What is Lipid Catabolism?

A

Adipose Tissue is used to remove Triglycerides from Chylomicrons and VLDL
VLDL Triglycerides constitute 98% of all body energy reserves

Lipid Catabolism:
Lipolysis
Split Triglycerides into fatty acids and Glycerol

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24
Q

What is Lipid Anabolism?

A

Lipogenesis:
Synthesize lipids from glucose or amino acids
Occurs when consume more calories than needed

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25
Q

What is Protein Metabolism?

A

Digested proteins broken down into amino acids
Amino acids not stored

Oxidized:
To produce ATP or synthesize new proteins

26
Q

What is Protein Catabolism?

A

Protein broken down to amino acids, which are converted o other Amino acids, fatty acids, ketone bodies, or glucose
Cells oxidize Amino acids to generate ATP via Krebs Cycle

27
Q

What is Protein Anabolism?

A

Synthesis of new proteins by bonding Amino acids together on Ribosomes

28
Q

What is Glucose 6-Phosphate?

A

Involved in:

1- Synthesis of Glycogen
2- Release of Glucose into bloodstream
3- Synthesis of Nucleic acids
4- Glycolysis

29
Q

What is Pyruvic Acid?

A

Involved in:
1- Production of Lactic Acid
2- Production of Alanine
3- Gluconeogenesis

30
Q

What is Acetyl Coenzyme A?

A

Involved in:
1- Helping 2-Carbon Acetyl groups enter the Krebs Cycle
2- Synthesis of lipids

31
Q

What is Glucose Catabolism?

A

Complete oxidation of Glucose (Cellular Respiration)
Chief source of ATP in cells
Consists of:
1- Glycolysis
2- Krebs Cycle
3- ETC

1 Glucose —–> 30 or 32 ATP

32
Q

What is Glycolysis?

A

Conversion of Glucose into Pyruvic Acid
Some ATP produced
Anaerobic

33
Q

What is Krebs Cycle?

A

Series of redox reactions
Coenzymes NAD+ and FAD pick H+ and OH- from oxidized org acids
Some ATP produced
CO2 and H2O byproducts
Aerobic

34
Q

What is ETC?

A

Series of redox reactions
e- passed from carrier to next
Most ATP produced
Aerobic

35
Q

What is Glucose Anabolism?

A

1- Glycogenesis:
Glucose —–> Glycogen
When not needed for ATP production

2- Glycogenolysis:
Glycogen —–> Glucose

3- Gluconeogenesis:
AA or Glycerol or Lactic Acids —–> Glucose

36
Q

What is Triglyceride Catabolism?

A

Triglyceride —–> Glycerol + Fatty Acids

Glycerol can be converted to Glucose by Gluconeogenesis
Or catabolized by Glycolysis

Fatty Acids catabolized via Beta Oxidation to Acetyl CoA that enters Krebs Cycle
Or converted to Ketone Bodies (Ketogenesis)

37
Q

What is Protein Catabolism?

A

Deamination then AA oxidized via Krebs Cycle

Ammonia resulting from Deamination is converted to Urea in Liver

AA may be converted to Glucose (Gluconeogenesis), fatty acids, or ketone bodies

38
Q

What is Protein Anabolism?

A

DNA directs mRNA to synthesize Protein on Ribosomes

39
Q

What Hormone assist in Regulation of Glucose and AA into cells, and Glycogenesis?

A

Insulin

For Facilitated Diffusion of Glucose and Active Transport of AA: in most cells

For Glycogenesis: in Hepatocytes

40
Q

What Hormones Regulate Protein Synthesis?

A

1- Insulin
2- Thyroid Hormones
3- IGFs

41
Q

What Hormone Regulate Lipogenesis?

A

Insulin

Location:
Adipose Cells and Hepatocytes

42
Q

What is Main Hormone that Regulates Glycogenolysis?

A

1- Glucagon
2- Epinephrine

Location:
Hepatocytes
Skeletal muscles

43
Q

What is Main Hormone that Regulates Lipolysis?

A

1- Epinephrine
2- Norepinephrine
3- Cortisol
4- IGFs
5- Thyroid Hormones

Location:
Adipocytes

44
Q

What is Main Hormone that Regulates Protein Breakdown?

A

1- Cortisol

Location:
Most cells
Especially skeletal muscle fibers

45
Q

What is Main Hormone that Regulates Gluconeogenesis?

A

1- Glucagon
2- Cortisol

Location:
Hepatocytes
Kidney Cortex Cells

46
Q

What happens when Fasting or Starving?

A

Ketogenesis:
Production of Ketone Bodies as Catabolism of fatty acids increase

Ketone Bodies may be used for energy by all cells

47
Q

What is Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)?

A

BMR:
Metabolic Rate measured when body is resting and fasting state
Overall rate at which metabolic reactions use energy

48
Q

What Factors affect Metabolic Rate?

A

1- Exercise
2- Hormones
3- Nervous System
4- Body Temperature
5- Ingestion of food
6- Age
7- Gender, climate, sleeping, malnutrition

49
Q

How is Heat Transferred from Body to Environment?

A

1- Conduction
2- Convection
3- Radiation
4- Evaporation

50
Q

What is Preoptic Area of Hypothalamus?

A

Body’s thermostat

Thermoreceptors:
Send info to Preoptic Area
Preoptic Area send signals to Heat-Losing Center and Heat-Promoting Center of Hypothalamus

Negative Feedback:
Conserve heat and increase heat production

51
Q

What is Negative Feedback Loop of Body Temperature Decreasing?

A

1- Body temperature decreases

2- Thermoreceptors in Hypothalamus and Skin send nerve impulses to Preoptic Area, Heat-Promoting Center, and Neurosecretory Cells in Hypothalamus and Thyrotrophs in Anterior Pituitary

3- Nerve impulses and TSH

4- Vasoconstriction decrease heat loss through skin
Adrenal Medulla releases hormones that increase cellular metabolism
Skeletal muscles contract in repetitive cycle called Shivering
Thyroid Gland releases Thyroid Hormones that increase Metabolic Rate

5- Body Temp increases

52
Q

What is Total Energy Expenditure?

A

BMR: 60%
Physical activity: 30-35%
Food-induced Thermogenesis: 5-10%

53
Q

What Controls Hunger?

A

Arcuate Nucleus and Paraventricular Nucleus of Hypothalamus control hunger

Hormone Leptin:
Helps decrease Adiposity

Neuropeptide Y:
Stimulates food intake

Melanocortin:
Inhibits food intake

54
Q

What is Minerals?

A

Inorganic elements
Important role in maintaining healthy body

55
Q

What is Vitamins?

A

Nutrients required in small amounts
Maintain growth and normal metabolism
Most cannot be synthesized in body, must be consumed from food

56
Q

What is Potassium?

A

Major Cation K+ in ICF

Needed for generation and conduction of Action Potentials in neurons and muscle fibers

57
Q

What is Sodium?

A

Most abundant Cation Na+ in ECF

Affects distribution of water through Osmosis
Part of Bicarbonate buffer system
Functions in nerve and muscle Action Potential conduction

58
Q

What is Anorexia Nervosa?

A

Chronic disorder characterized by self-induced wight loss

59
Q

What is Fever?

A

Elevation of core temp caused by resetting of the Hypothalamus thermostat

60
Q

What is Obesity?

A

Body weight more than 20% above desirable standard due to an excessive accumulation of Adipose tissue

Anatomy & Physiology Review I (30 decks)

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