Chapter 2 - The Chemical Level of Organization Flashcards
What are the Major Chemical Elements in our Body?
Major Elements (96%): CHON
Oxygen:
65%
Part of water and many organic molecules
used to generate ATP
Carbon:
18.5%
Forms chains and rings of all organic molecules (carbs, lipids, proteins, DNA, RNA)
Hydrogen:
9.5%
Constituent of water and most organic molecules
H+ makes body fluids more acidic
Nitrogen:
3.2%
Component of all proteins and nucleic acids
What are the Lesser Chemical Elements in our Body?
Lesser Elements (3.6%): “IronMag-ChloCal-PhoPo-SulSod”
Calcium:
1.5%
Contributes to hardness of bones and teeth
Ca2+ needed for blood clotting, release of some hormones, contraction of muscles, and other processes
Phosphorus:
1%
Component of nucleic acids and ATP
Required for normal bone and teeth structure
Potassium:
0.35%
K+ most abundant Cation(+) in Intracellular fluid
Needed to generate action potentials
Sulfur:
0.25%
Component of some vitamins and many proteins
Sodium:
0.2%
Na+ most abundant Cation(+) in Extracellular fluid
Essential for maintaining water balance
Needed to generate action potentials
Chlorine:
0.2%
Cl- most abundant Anion(-) in Extracellular fluid
Essential for maintaining water balance
Magnesium:
0.1%
Mg2+ needed for actions of many enzymes
Iron:
0.005%
Fe2+ and Fe3+ part of hemoglobin (oxygen-carrying protein in RBC) and some enzymes
What are the Trace Chemical Elements in our Body?
Trace Elements (0.4%):
Aluminum Al
Boron B
Chromium Cr
Cobalt Co
Copper Cu
Fluorine F
Iodine I
Manganese Mn
Molybdenum Mo
Selenium Se
Silicon Si
Tin Sn
Vanadium V
Zinc Zn
What is an Atom?
Atoms are the smallest unit of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of an element
What is Atomic Number?
Number of Protons in nucleus of atom
What is Mass Number?
Number of Protons and Neutrons in nucleus of atom
What is an Isotope?
2 or more Forms of atoms with different number of Neutrons in nucleus
What is Atomic Mass?
Average mass of an atom’s naturally occurring isotopes
P+N+e
What is an Ion?
Atom that lost or gained an electron
What is a Molecule?
2 or more atoms sharing electrons
What is a Compound?
A substance that can be broken down into 2 or more different elements
What is a Chemical Bond?
Atoms held together by forces of attraction
Number of electrons in valence shell determines likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom
What is an Ionic Bond?
An atom loses an electron
Another atom gains the electron
Electrostatic attraction between + and - ions
ex: Na+ and Cl- making NaCl
What is a Covalent Bond
2 atoms share one or more electrons
Strong bond
ex: H and H make H-H or H2
ex: O and O make O=O or O2
ex: C and 4H make CH4
What is a Hydrogen Bond?
Hydrogen Bonds result from the attraction of oppositely charged parts of molecules
S+ (delta +) and S- (delta -)
ex: H2O
O is S-
H is S+
What do Hydrogen Bonds do for water?
Cohesion:
Tendency of like particles to stay together
Surface Tension:
Measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid
What is a Chemical Reaction?
When new bonds are formed or old bonds are broken
Reactants: starting substances
Products: ending substances
What is Energy?
Energy is the capacity to do work
3 Types:
Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy
Chemical Energy
What is the Law of Conservation of Energy?
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another
What is Exergonic Reaction?
Spontaneous reaction
Energy is released
Delta G is negative (Gibbs Free Energy)
What is Endergonic Reaction?
Non Spontaneous reaction
Energy is added
Delta G is positive (Gibbs Free Energy)
What is Activation Energy?
Energy absorbed to start reaction
What is Catalyst?
Decreases Activation Energy needed to start reaction
What are the 5 Types of Chemical Reactions?
1- Synthesis (2 form 1 large)
2- Decomposition (1 large splits to 2 small)
3- Exchange
4- Reversible
5- Oxidation-Reduction (RedOx)
What is Oxidation-Reduction Reaction?
Reaction that transfers electrons between atoms and molecules and occur in parallel
One Oxidized one Reduced
Oxidation:
Loss of electrons and energy released
Reduction:
Gain of electrons and energy gain
What is Organic and Inorganic Compound?
Organic:
Always has C, H, and O
Inorganic:
Lack C and usually simple molecules
ex: water most important and abundant inorganic compound in body
What are the properties of Water?
Polar:
Uneven distribution/sharing of electrons in covalent bond
Solvent:
Universal solvent, can dissolve most substances (more than others)
Water is ideal medium in chemical reactions
Hydrolysis:
Water added to break bonds
Dehydration Synthesis:
Water removed to make new bonds
Water is a Lubricant:
Helps reduce friction as membranes and organs slide over one another
What are the Thermal Properties of Water?
High Heat Capacity
High Heat of Vaporization
What is a Mixture?
Mixture:
Combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bonded together
1- Solution
2- Colloid
3- Suspension
What is Molarity?
Moles (mol) per Liter
1 Molar (1M) solution = 1 mole of solute in 1 Liter of solution
ex:
To make 1M solution of NaCl
Dissolve 1 mole of NaCl (58.44g) in 1 L of solution
What is Acid, Base, and Salt?
Acid:
pH<7
ex: HCl
Base:
pH>7
ex: KOH
Salt:
Ionic mixture
ex: KCl
What are some pH Values of Body Substances?
Gastric Juice: 1.2-3.0
Vaginal Fluid: 3.5-4.5
Urine: 4.6-8.0
Saliva: 6.35-6.85
Blood: 7.35-7.45
Semen: 7.20-7.60
Cerebrospinal Fluid: 7.4
Pancreatic Juice: 7.1-8.2
Bile: 7.6-8.6
What is a pH Buffer System?
Buffer System helps regulate pH by converting strong acids or bases to weak acids or bases
What are some Major Functional Groups of Organic Compounds?
Hydroxyl:
Alcohols with -OH groups
Polar, Hydrophilic, doesn’t dissolve easily in water
Sulfhydryl:
Thiols with -SH groups
Polar, Hydrophilic
Certain amino acids have -SH groups that stabilize shape of proteins
Carbonyl:
Ketones have Carbonyl groups
Polar, Hydrophilic
Carboxyl:
Aldehydes have Carboxyl groups
Ester:
Esters mostly in dietary fats and oils
Can be in body as Triglycerides
Aspirin is ester of salicylic acid
Phosphate:
Contain _(PO4)2-
Very hydrophilic
ex: ATP
Amino:
-NH2 group act as base and picks up H+ ion
What are the Major Carbohydrate Groups?
1- Monosaccharides:
Glucose (in blood)
Fructose (fruits)
Galactose (milk sugar)
Deoxyribose (DNA)
Ribose (RNA)
2- Disaccharides:
Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
Lactose (glucose + galactose)
Maltose (glucose + glucose)
3- Polysaccharides:
Glycogen (stored form of carbs in animal)
Starch (stored form of carbs in plants, main in food)
Cellulose (from plant cell walls, helps movement of food through intestines)
What are the Types of Lipids in the Body?
Fatty Acids:
Used to synthesize Triglycerides and Phospholipids
Catabolized to generate ATP
Triglycerides:
Protection, Insulation, Energy Storage
Phospholipids:
Component of cell membrane
Steroids
Eicosanoids (Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes):
Diverse effects on modifying responses to hormones, blood clotting, inflammation, immunity, stomach acid secretion, airway diameter, lipid breakdown, and smooth muscle contraction
Other Lipids
What are some Steroids in the Body and what do they do?
Steroids:
1- Cholesterol:
Minor component of cell membrane, precursor of bile salts, vitamin D, and steroid hormones
2- Bile Salts:
For digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
3- Vitamin D:
Helps regulate calcium levels, needed for bone growth and repair
4- Adrenocortical Hormones:
Help regulate metabolism
Resistance to stress
Salt and water balance
5- Sex Hormones:
Stimulate reproductive functions and sexual characteristics
What are some Other Lipids in the Body and what do they do?
Other Lipids:
1- Carotenes:
Needed for synthesis of vitamin A (to make visual pigments in eye)
Function as antioxidants
2- Vitamin E:
Promotes wound healing
Prevents tissue scarring
Contributes to normal structure and function of Nervous System
Functions as Antioxidant
3- Vitamin K:
Required for synthesis of blood-clotting proteins
4- Lipoproteins:
Transport lipids in blood
Carry Triglycerides and Cholesterol to tissue
Remove excess Cholesterol from blood
What does Triglycerides do?
Protection
Insulation
Energy Storage
What does Phospholipids do?
Important component of cell membranes
What are the functions of Proteins?
1- Proteins give structure to the body
ex: Collagen in bone, Keratin in skin
2- Regulate processes
ex: Control growth and development, act as neurotransmitter
3- Provide protection
ex: Aid response against foreign substances (antibodies, Interleukins)
4- Assist in muscle contraction
ex: Allow shortening of muscle cells, produce movement (Myosin, Actin)
5- Transport substances
ex: Carry vital substances (Hemoglobin carry oxygen)
6- Serve as enzymes
ex: Regulate biochemical reactions (ATPase, Amylase…)
What is a Protein made of?
Protein formed by combining amino acids by peptide bonds
Peptide bonds are made by dehydration of 2 amino acids to join them and leave water
Primary Structure:
Amino acid sequence
Secondary Structure:
Twisting and folding of sequences, stabilized by hydrogen bonds
Tertiary Structure:
3D shape of polypeptide chain
Quaternary Structure:
Arrangement of 2 or more polypeptide chains
What is an Enzyme?
Enzyme is a catalyst in a living cell
Enzymes are highly specific, extremely efficient, and subject to cellular controls
Substrate goes to Active Site of Enzyme
Form Enzyme-Substrate Complex
Enzyme catalyzes reaction and transforms substrate into products
What is a Nucleic Acid?
DNA forms genetic code in nucleus of cell and regulates most of cell’s activities
RNA guides protein formation
What is a Nucleotide?
Pentose sugar (Deoxyribose in DNA, Ribose in RNA)
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous base
What is a Nitrogenous Base?
DNA:
C - Cytosine
T- Thymine
A - Adenine
G - Guanine
RNA:
C - Cytosine
U - Uracil
A - Adenine
G - Guanine
Pure as Gold:
A and G are Purines
Cut the Pie:
C, U, and T are Pyrimidines
DNA vs RNA?
DNA:
A, C, G, T
Deoxyribose
2 Strands (Double Helix)
A-T and C-G
Self-replicating
Encodes info for making proteins
Nuclear DNA, Mitochondrial DNA
RNA:
A, C, G, U
Ribose
1 Strand
A-U and C-G
Made by using DNA as a blueprint
Carries genetic code and assist in making proteins
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
What is ATP?
ATP - Adenosine TriPhosphate
Principal energy-storing molecule in body
