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Anatomy & Physiology Review I > Chapter 17 - The Special Senses > Flashcards

Chapter 17 - The Special Senses Flashcards

1
Q

What is Olfaction?

A

Olfaction:
Sense of smell

Smell is a chemical sense

Human nose contains 10 to 100 million receptors for smell (olfaction) in the Olfactory epithelium of the superior part of the nasal cavity

The olfactory epithelium covers the interior surface of the Cribriform Plate (of the Ethmoid bone of skull) and extends along Superior Nasal Concha

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2
Q

What are the 3 Types of Olfactory Cells?

A

1- Olfactory Receptor Cells (has olfactory cilia after dendrites)

2- Supporting Cells

3- Basal Cells

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3
Q

What is Supporting Cells?

A

Columnar epithelium

Located in the mucous membrane lining the nose

Used for physical support, nourishment, and electrical insulation for Olfactory Receptor Cells

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4
Q

What is Basal Stem Cells?

A

Undergo mitosis to replace Olfactory Receptor Cells

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5
Q

What is Olfactory Glands (Bowman’s Gland)?

A

Produce mucus that is used to dissolve odor molecules so that transduction may occur

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6
Q

How are Impulses sent along Olfactory Nerve I (1)?

A

Receptors in the nasal mucosa send impulses along branches of Olfactory Nerve I (1)
Through the Cribriform Plate
Synapse with the Olfactory Bulb
Impulses travel along the Olfactory Tract
Interpretation in the Primary Olfactory Area in Cerebral Cortex (Temporal Lobe)

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7
Q

What is Olfactory Transduction?

A

Olfactory Transduction:
Binding of an odorant molecule to an Olfactory Receptor Protein

Chemical reactions involving cAMP causes depolarization
Action potential travels to Primary Olfactory Area
Impulse travels to the Frontal Lobe (Orbitofrontal Area) for odor identification

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8
Q

What is Gustation?

A

Gustation:
Sense of taste

Taste is a chemical sense, but it is much simpler than Olfaction

There are only 5 Primary Tastes:

1- Sour
2- Sweet
3- Bitter
4- Salt
5- Umami (meaty, savory)

(flavors other than Umami are combinations of the other 4 primary tastes)

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9
Q

What is Taste Buds?

A

Taste Buds:
Contain receptors for sensation of taste
Approximately 10,000 taste buds are found on the Tongue of a young adult and on the Soft Palate, Pharynx, and Epiglottis

Taste Buds contain 3 kinds of epithelial cells
1- Supporting Cells
2- Gustatory Receptor Cells (w/ Gustatory Microvilli)
3- Basal Stem Cells

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10
Q

Where are Taste Buds?

A

Taste Buds are located in elevations on the Tongue called Papillae

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11
Q

What are the 3 Types of Papillae that contain Taste Buds?

A

1- Vallate Papillae:
About 12 that contain 100-300 Taste Buds

2- Fungiform Papillae:
Scattered over the Tongue with about 5 Taste Buds each

3- Foliate Papillae:
Located in Lateral Trenches of the Tongue
(most of their Taste Buds degenerate in early childhood)

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12
Q

What is Filiform Papillae?

A

Filiform Papillae cover the entire surface of the Tongue
Contain Tactile Receptors but no Taste Buds
Increase friction to make it easier for the Tongue to move food within the mouth

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13
Q

What is Structure of Tongue?

A

Epiglottis

Palatine Tonsil
Lingual Tonsil

Vallate Papillae (center very noticeable)
Fungiform Papillae (scattered)
Filiform Papillae (non noticeable)
Foliate Papillae (Lateral Trenches)

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14
Q

What are the Cranial Nerves Associated with Gustation?

A

3 Cranial Nerves are involved in Gustation:

1- Facial Nerve VII (7):
Carries taste information from anterior 2/3 of tongue

2- Glossopharyngeal Nerve IX (9):
Carries taste information from posterior 1/3 of tongue

3- Vagus Nerve X (10):
Carries taste information from Taste Buds on the Epiglottis and in Throat

(Trigeminal Nerve V (5) conveys touch)

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15
Q

What is Gustatory Pathway?

A

Anterior 2/3 of tongue:
Facial Nerve VII (7) to Gustatory Nucleus on Medulla Oblongata
Then Second-Order Neuron to Thalamus
Then Third-Order Neuron to Primary Gustatory Area of Cerebral Cortex

Posterior 1/3 of tongue:
Glossopharyngeal Nerve IX (9) to Gustatory Nucleus on Medulla Oblongata
Then Second-Order Neuron to Thalamus
Then Third-Order Neuron to Primary Gustatory Area of Cerebral Cortex

Epiglottis:
Vagus Nerve X (10) to Gustatory Nucleus on Medulla Oblongata
Then Second-Order Neuron to Thalamus
Then Third-Order Neuron to Primary Gustatory Area of Cerebral Cortex

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16
Q

What is Vision?

A

Vision uses visible light in which is part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths from 400 to 700nm

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17
Q

What are Accessory Structures of the Eyes?

A

Eyelids
Eyelashes
Eyebrows
Lacrimal Apparatus
Extrinsic Eye Muscles

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18
Q

What is Palpebral Muscles?

A

Control eyelid movement

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19
Q

What is Extrinsic Eye Muscles?

A

Move eyeball in all directions

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20
Q

What is Conjunctiva?

A

Thin, protective mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and covers the Sclera

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21
Q

What is Tarsal Plate?

A

Fold of connective tissue that gives form to the eyelids

Contains row of Sebaceous Glands (Tarsal Glands or Meibomian Glands) that keep eyelids from sticking to each other

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22
Q

What is Lacrimal Apparatus?

A

Produces and drains tears

Pathway for Tears:
1- Lacrimal Glands
2- Lacrimal Ducts
3- Lacrimal Puncta
4- Lacrimal Canaliculi
5- Lacrimal Sac
6- Nasolacrimal Ducts that carry tears into nasal cavity

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23
Q

What are the 6 Extrinsic Muscles that Move the Eyes in all Directions?

A

Superior Rectus
Inferior Rectus
Lateral Rectus (LR6 - CN6 Abducens Nerve)
Medial Rectus
Superior Oblique (SO4 - CN4 Trochlear Nerve)
Inferior Oblique

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24
Q

What are the 2 Tunics (Coats) of the Eyeball?

A

1- Fibrous Tunic
Cornea
Sclera

2- Vascular Tunic:
Choroid
Ciliary Body
Iris

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25
Q

What is Iris?

A

Colored portion of eyeball
Controls size of Pupil based on Autonomic Reflexes

Bright light - constrict - circular muscles of Iris contracts (Parasympathetic)
Dim light - dilate - radial muscles of Iris contracts (Sympathetic)

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26
Q

What is Retina?

A

Retina lines posterior 3/4 of the inner layer of the eyeball

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27
Q

What is Optic Disc (Blind Spot)?

A

Point at which Optic Nerve II (2) exits the eye

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28
Q

What is Macula Lutea?

A

Macula Lutea is the exact center of the Retina
In its center is the Fovea Centralis, the area of highest visual acuity

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29
Q

What are Photoreceptors in Retina?

A

Retina contains Photoreceptors known as:
1-Rods:
To see in dim light
2- Cones:
Produce color vision

From these sensors, information flows through the Outer Synaptic Layer to Bipolar Cells through the Inner Synaptic Layer to Ganglion Cells
Axons of these exit as the Optic Nerve II (2)

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30
Q

What are the Eye’s Chambers?

A

Eye is divided into Anterior Chamber and Posterior Chamber by the Iris

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31
Q

What is Anterior Chamber?

A

Between Iris and Cornea
Filled with Aqueous Humor (clear watery liquid)

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32
Q

What is Posterior Chamber?

A

Behind Iris and in front of Lens
Filled with Aqueous Humor

33
Q

What is Posterior Cavity (Vitreous Chamber)?

A

Posterior Cavity or Vitreous Chamber is behind the Anterior and Posterior Chambers
Filled with Vitreous Humor (a transparent, gelatinous substance)

34
Q

How does Light Pass through Eyes?

A

Light passes through:

1- Cornea
2- Anterior Chamber
3- Pupil
4- Posterior Chamber
5- Lens
6- Vitreous Humor
7- Projected onto Retina

35
Q

What is Function of Cornea?

A

Admit and refract (bend) light

36
Q

What is Function of Sclera?

A

Provide shape and protect inner parts

37
Q

What is Vascular Trunk?

A

Iris
Ciliary Body
Choroid

38
Q

What is Function of Iris?

A

Regulate amount of light that enter eyeball

39
Q

What is Function of Ciliary Body?

A

Secretes Aqueous Humor
Alters shape of Lens for near or far vision (Accommodation)

40
Q

What is Function of Choroid?

A

Provide blood supply and absorb scattered light

41
Q

What is Function of Retina?

A

Receive light
Convert light into receptor potentials and nerve impulses
Output to brain via axons of Ganglion Cells, which for Optic Nerve II (2)

42
Q

What is Function of Lens?

A

Refract light

43
Q

What is Function of Anterior Chamber?

A

Contains Aqueous Humor that helps maintain shape of eyeball
Supply oxygen and nutrients to Lens and Cornea

44
Q

What is Function of Vitreous Chamber?

A

Contain Vitreous Body that helps maintain shape of eyeball
Keeps Retina attached to Choroid

45
Q

how is Light Interpreted in Eye?

A

Images focused on Retina are:
Inverted
Right to left reversed

Brain corrects the image

Lens must accommodate to properly focus on object
Image is projected onto Fovea Centralis, the site where vision is the sharpest

46
Q

What is Emmetropic?

A

Emmetropic:
Normal eye will refract light correctly and focus a clear image on the Retina

47
Q

What is Myopia (Nearsightedness)?

A

Myopia:
Eyeball is longer than it should be
Image converges in front of the Retina
People see close objects sharply, but perceive distant object as blurry

Concave Lens is used to correct the vision

48
Q

What is Hyperopia (Farsightedness)?

A

Hyperopia: (Hypermetropia)
Eyeball is shorter than it should be
Image converges behind Retina
People can see distant objects clear, but have difficulty with close objects

Convex Lens is used to correct the vision

49
Q

What is Astigmatism?

A

Astigmatism:
Condition where either the Cornea or the Lens (or both) has an irregular curve
Causes blurred or distorted vision

50
Q

What are Rods and Cones?

A

Rods and Cones
Photoreceptors in Retina
Convert light energy into neural impulses

Contain photopigments necessary for absorption of light that will initiate the events that lead to production of a receptor potential

Rods:
Contain only Rhodopsin

Cones:
Contain 3 different photopigments, 1 for each of 3 types of cones (RGB)

Photopigments respond to light in a cyclical process

51
Q

What is Light Adaptation?

A

Occurs when an individual moves from dark surroundings to light ones
It occurs in seconds

52
Q

What is Dark Adaptation?

A

Takes place when one moves from a lighted area to a dark one
Takes minutes to complete

53
Q

Why do Light and Dark Adaptations Occur?

A

Part of the difference is related to Rates of Bleaching and Regeneration of photopigments in Rods and Cones

Light causes Rod photoreceptors to decrease their release of the Inhibitory Neurotransmitter Glutamate

In darkness, Rod photoreceptors release the Inhibitory Neurotransmitter Glutamate
This inhibits Bipolar Cells from transmitting signal to Ganglion Cells which provide output from the retina to the brain

54
Q

What is the Neural Pathway for Vision?

A

Neural Pathway for Vision:
begins when Rods and Cones convert light energy into neural signals that are directed to the Optic Nerve II (2)

Pathway:
1- Optic Chiasm
2- Optic Tract
3- Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of Thalamus
4- Optic Radiations allow the information to arrive at the Primary Visual Areas of the Occipital Lobes for perception

55
Q

What is Binocular Vision?

A

Anterior location of eyes leads to visual field overlap

56
Q

What is Visual Fields?

A

The 2 visual fields of each eye are nasal (medial) and temporal (lateral)
Visual information from the right half of each visual field travels to the left side of the brain
Visual information from the left half of each visual field travels to the right side of the brain

57
Q

What is Transduction of Sound?

A

Transduction of sound vibrations by the ear’s sensory receptors into electrical signals is 1,000 times faster than the response to light by the eyes’ photoreceptors

The ear also contains receptors for Equilibrium

The ear is divided into 3 regions:
1- External Ear
2- Middle Ear
3- Internal Ear

58
Q

What is External Ear?

A

External Ear contains:

1- Auricle (Pinna)
Captures sound

2- External Auditory Canal
Transmits sound to Eardrum

3- Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)

Ceruminous Glands secrete Cerumen (earwax) to protect the canal and eardrum

59
Q

What is Middle Ear?

A

Middle Ear:

Contains 3 Auditory Ossicles:
Malleus, Incus, Stapes (MIS)

Sound vibrations are transmitted from the eardrum through these 3 bones to the Oval Window

Auditory Tube (Pharyngotympanic Tube / Eustachian Tube):
Extends from Middle Ear into Nasopharynx to regulate air pressure in the Middle Ear

60
Q

What is Internal Ear?

A

Internal Ear (Labyrinth) contains:

1- Cochlea:
Translates vibrations into neural impulses that the brain can interpret as sound

2- Semicircular Canals:
Work with Cerebellum for balance and equilibrium

Hair Cells of Inner Ear are vibration receptors and lead to CN8

61
Q

How are Vibrations Transmitted?

A

Vibrations are transmitted from Stapes through the Oval Window to the Cochlea as fluid pressure waves are transmitted into the Perilymph of the Scala Vestibuli

From here, pressure waves travel to Scala Tympani and then to the Round Window which bulges into the Middle Ear

Pressure waves travel from Scala Vestibuli to the Vestibular Membrane to the Endolymph of the Cochlear Duct

Basilar Membrane vibrates
This moves the Hair Cells of the Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti) against the Tectorial Membrane
These Cells generate nerve impulses in the Cochlear Nerve fibers

62
Q

What is Cochlear Nerve Fibers?

A

The Cochlear Nerve Fibers form the Cochlear Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve VIII (8)

The Axons synapse with neurons in the Cochlear Nuclei in the Medulla Oblongata

The impulses travel to the Medial Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus and end in the Primary Auditory Area of the Cerebral Cortex in the Temporal Lobe

63
Q

Thalamus and Lobe in Vision vs Hearing?

A

Thalamus:
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus - Vision
Medial Geniculate Nucleus - Hearing

Lobes:
Occipital Lobe - Primary Visual Center
Temporal Lobe - Primary Auditory Center

64
Q

What is Equilibrium?

A

Equilibrium (Balance) exists in 2 forms:

1- Static Equilibrium:
Maintenance of the body’s position relative to the force of gravity

2- Dynamic Equilibrium:
Maintenance of the body’s position in response to sudden movements

65
Q

What is Vestibular Apparatus?

A

Organs that maintain equilibrium
Includes:

1- Saccule
2- Utricle (both Otolithic Organs)
3- Semicircular Canals

66
Q

What is Otoliths?

A

Otoliths:
Calcium carbonate crystals
The walls of the Utricle and Saccule contain a Macula
The 2 Maculae are receptors for Static Equilibrium

67
Q

What is Otolithic Membrane?

A

Otolithic Membrane:
Sits on top of the Macula

Movement of the head causes gravity to move it down over Hair Cells
The Hair Cells synapse with neurons in the Vestibular Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve VIII (8)

68
Q

What is Semicircular Canals?

A

Semicircular Canals are responsible for Dynamic Equilibrium

The ducts lie at right angles to each other which allows for rotational acceleration or deceleration

An Ampulla in each canal contains the Crista with a group of Hair Cells:
Movement of the head affects the Endolymph and Hair Cells
This generates a potential leading to nerve impulses that travel along the Vestibular Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve VIII (8)

69
Q

What is the Function of Auricle (Pinna)?

A

Collect sound waves

70
Q

What is the Function of External Auditory Canal (Meatus)?

A

Direct sound waves to eardrum

71
Q

What is the Function of Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)?

A

Sound waves cause it to vibrate, which in turn causes Malleus to vibrate

72
Q

What is the Function of Auditory Ossicles (MIS)?

A

Transmit and amplify vibrations from Tympanic Membrane to Oval Window

73
Q

What is the Function of Auditory Tube (Eustachian Tube)?

A

Equalize air pressure on both side of Tympanic Membrane

74
Q

What is the Function of Cochlea?

A

Contains a series of fluids, channels, and membranes that transmit vibrations to Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti), the organ of hearing
Hair Cells in Spiral Organ produce receptor potentials, which elicit nerve impulses in Cochlear Branch of Vestibulocochlear Nerve VIII (8)

75
Q

What is the Function of Vestibular Apparatus?

A

Includes Semicircular Ducts, Utricle, and Saccule, which generate nerve impulses that propagate along Vestibular Branch of Vestibulocochlear Nerve VIII (8)

76
Q

What is the Function of Semicircular Ducts?

A

Detect rotational acceleration or deceleration

77
Q

What is the Function of Utricle?

A

Detect linear acceleration or deceleration that occurs in a horizontal direction and also head tilt

78
Q

What is the Function of Saccule?

A

Detect linear acceleration or deceleration that occurs in a vertical direction

79
Q

How does Aging Affect Special Senses?

A

Around age 50:
Smell and taste are affected by aging as receptors are gradually lost and their regeneration occurs at a slower rate

Around age 40:
Lens begins to lose elasticity and has difficulty focusing on close objects (Presbyopia)
Muscles of the Iris weaken and react more slowly to light and dark resulting in difficulty adjusting to changes in lighting

Retinal disease such as Macular Degeneration, Detached Retina, and Glaucoma, occur more frequently in elderly

Around age 60:
Approximately 25% of individuals experience noticeable hearing loss
Presbycusis

Tinnitus (ringing in ears) and Vestibular Imbalances also more frequently in elderly

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