Chapter 22 Respiratory System

Question 1

What are the functions of the respiratory system? What is valsalva maneuver?

Answer 1

– O2 and CO2 exchange between blood and air
– Speech and other vocalizations
– Sense of smell
– Affects pH of body fluids by eliminating CO2
– Affects blood pressure by synthesis of
vasoconstrictor, angiotensin converting enzyme
– Promote the flow of lymph and venous blood

valsalva maneuver= breathing technique

Question 2

Which parts of the respiratory system are included in the respiratory and conductive divisions
of the respiratory system? How do we classify the upper and lower divisions of the respiratory
tract?

Answer 2

respiratory zone= consists of the alveoli and other gas-exchange regions of the distal airway
conducting zone= serve only for airflow, from the nostrisl through the major bronchioles

upper respiratory tract= head and neck
lower respiratory tract= trachea through lungs

Question 3

What would be the route of air flow or a dust
particle before it reaches the alveoli?

Answer 3

inhale air into mouth or nose, air travels down trachea, air travels through bronchi and into lungs, air is directed through smaller and smaller bronchioles, air moves through alveolar duct into a single alveolus or alveoli(tiny, balloon shaped),

Question 4

What are the functions of nose, &
vibrissae?

Answer 4

Nose=
– Warms, cleanses, and humidifies inhaled air
– Detects odors in the airstream
– Serves as a resonating chamber that amplifies the voice

vibrissae= stiff guard hairs that block debris from entering the nose

Question 5

What are the three divisions of pharynx and which division receives the auditory tube?

Answer 5

nasopharynx= recieves auditory tubes from the ear, passes only air
oropharynx= passes air food and drink
larynpharynx= esophagus begins at this point, passes air food and drink

Question 6

tWhat are the nine cartilages of larynx and which one is the largest? What is the role of
epiglottis and vocal cords?

Answer 6

largest cartilage of the larynx= thyroid cartilage

larynx= voice box,
epiglottis= flap that function is to keep food and drink out of airway
vocal cords= produce sound when air passes between them

Question 7

What would you see on the endoscopic view of the upper respiratory tract? What is the role of
intrinsic muscles of vocal cord? What affects the pitch and loudness of sound?

Answer 7

You would see the larynx and lower end of trachea

Instrict muscles of vocal cord
-abduct or adduct vocal cords
-air forced between adducted vocal cords vibrates them
-high pitched sound when cords are taut (tight)
-low pitched sound when cords are slack (loose)
-*loudness is determiend by the force of air between the vocal cords

Question 8

What is trachea made up of and what is mucociliary escalator? What is tracheostomy? What
are the indications for tracheostomy?

Answer 8

Trachea is made up of 16 to 20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage

tracheostomy= surgical procedure that creates an opening into the trachea and a tube is placed to provide an airway to remove secretions from the lungs.
indications- obstruction of upper airway

mucocilliary escalator= mechanism for debris removal

Question 9

How many lobes of lungs are on the right and the left side? Why is right lung shorter than the
left?

Answer 9

right lung- three lobes (superior, middle, and inferior) shorter than the left because liver rises higher
left lung- two lobes (superior and inferior)

Question 10

What is bronchial tree? What are BALT and where are they located?

Answer 10

Bronchial tree—a branching system of air tubes

Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT)= type of lymphoid tissue, can be found in lamina propria

Question 11

What are the layers of pleura? What are the functions of pleura and pleural fluid?

Answer 11

2 layers of pleura
visceral pleura= inner, covers lungs
parietal= outer, attached to media sitnum, covers surface of ribcage, and superior of diaphragm

Functions of pleurae and pleural fluid
– Reduce friction- holds the membranes together and lubricates
– Create pressure gradient
* Lower pressure than atmospheric pressure; assists lung inflation
– Compartmentalization
* Prevents spread of infection from one organ in mediastinum to
others

Question 12

Know the cells of the alveoli with their functions.

Answer 12

Squamous (type 1) alveolar cells= allow for rapid gas diffusion between alevolus and bloodstream, make up 95% of alveolus surface area
Great (type II) alveolar cells= repair alveolar epithelium when squaous cells are daamged and secrete pulmonary surfactant
alveolar macrophages (dust cells)

Question 13

What is the role of surfactant and what would happen if it is not formed? What is IRDS?

Answer 13

surfactant= an agent that disrupts hydrogen bonds of water and reduces surface tension (ex: soap and detergent).

pulmonary surfactant is a mixture of phospholipids and proteins that coat the alveoli and prevent them form collapsing during exhalation

If a surfatant would no form there would be breathing problems

Infant Respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)= occurs in premature infants due to surfactant deficiency, causes difficulty of breathing

Question 14

What are the main muscles for respiration? Which nerve innervates the diaphragm and inter-
coastal muscles?

Answer 14

Diaphragm= prime mover of respiration
Internal and external inercoastal muscles= aid the diaphragm

phrenic nerve

Question 15

Know the centers for the neural control of ventilation (respiratory control centers for
unconscious and conscious breathing and the afferent connections to brain)

Answer 15

automatic unconscious breathing
Ventral respiratory group= primary generator of respiratory rythmn
dorsal respiratory group= mehanism that modifies the basic respiratory rythmn
pontine respiratory group= receives input from higher
brain centers and issues output to both VRG and DRG.
Neurons in medulla oblongata and pons control unconscious
breathing

conscious breathing
control of concious breathing comes from motor cortex of cerebrum

Question 16

Know the gas Laws and their application to the process of respiratory cycle.

Answer 16

boyles law= pressure of a given quanitity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume (breathing )

charles law= the volume of a given quantitiy is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (amount of air you can inhale)

Daltons law= the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of its individual gases (the percentage of each of these gasses in the air we breathe makes its contribution to total atmospheric pressure, and this contribution will depend on how much of each gas is in the air we breathe.)

henrys law= at the air-water interface, the amount of gas the dissolves in water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in air (predict how gasses will dissolve in the alveoli and bloodstream during gas exchange)

Question 17

What factors affect air flow/resistance?

Answer 17

airflow= factors are presure and resistance. the greater the resistance the slower the flow
resistance= factors are diameter of the bronchioles and pulmonary compliance

Question 18

What is pulmonary compliance?

Answer 18

Pulmonary compliance: the ease with which the lungs can
expand
Compliance reduced by degenerative lung diseases in which the
lungs are stiffened by scar tissue

Question 19

What is anatomic dead space?

Answer 19

Anatomic dead space- Conducting zone of airway where
there is no gas exchange
Can be altered somewhat by sympathetic and
parasympathetic stimulation

Question 20

What is physiologic dead space?

Answer 20

Physiologic (total) dead space- Sum of anatomic
dead space and any pathological alveolar dead space

Question 21

What is alveolar ventilation rate?

Answer 21

Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)= Air that ventilates alveoli (350 mL) X respiratory rate (12 bpm) = 4,200 mL/min.

– This is most directly relevant to the body’s ability to get
oxygen to the tissues and dispose of carbon dioxide

Question 22

What is spirometry? What are tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve
volume and residual volume?

Answer 22

Spirometry—The Measurement of Pulmonary Ventilation

Tidal volume= volume of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle
during quiet breathing

Inspiratory reserve volume= air in excess of tidal volume that
can be inhaled with maximum effort

Expiratory reserve volume= air in excess of tidal volume that
can be exhaled with maximum effort

Residual volume= air remaining in lungs after maximum
expiration

Question 23

What are restrictive and obstructive disorders? Know with examples.

Answer 23

Restrictive disorders= those that reduce pulmonary
compliance, Any disease that produces pulmonary fibrosis
EX: Black lung disease, tuberculosis

Obstructive disorders= those that interfere with
airflow by narrowing or blocking the airway
Ex: Asthma, chronic bronchitis

Question 24

Define- Eupnea, Apnea, Dyspnea, Hyperpnea, Hyperventilation, Hypoventilation, Kussmaul
respiration, Orthopnea, Respiratory arrest, Tachypnea, Pneumothorax, Atelectasis

Answer 24

Eupnea=relaxed, quiet breathing

Apnea= temporary cessation (stopping) of breathing

Hyperpnea= increased rate and depth of
breathing in response to exercise, pain, or other
conditions

dyspnea= labored, gasping breathing; shortness
of breath

Hyperventilation= increased pulmonary
ventilation in excess of metabolic demand
Hypoventilation= reduced pulmonary ventilation
accelerated respiration
Kussmaul respiration= deep, rapid breathing
often induced by acidosis

Orthopnea= dyspnea that occurs when person is
lying down

Respiratory arrest= permanent cessation of
breathing

Tachypnea= accelerated respiration

Pneumothorax= presence of air in pleural cavity

Atelectasis= collapse of part or all of a lung

Question 25

What factors affect gaseous exchange?

Answer 25

Concetration gradients of gases, gas solubility, membrane thickness, membrane surface area, ventilation-perfusion coupling

Question 26

What happens at the alveolar level? What occurs at the systemic level?

Answer 26

Alveolar gas exchange= henrys law, oxygen loading, Carbond dioxide unloading
Systemic gas exxhange= oxygen unloading, carbon dioxide loading

Question 27

Which lung diseases can affect gas exchange?

Answer 27

Pneumonia and emphysema can affect gas exchange

Question 28

What happens during carbon monoxide poisoning?

Answer 28

carbon monoxide is being displaced from hemoglobin

Question 29

In what forms are oxygen and carbon dioxide transported?

Answer 29

Oxygen= hemoglobin is specialized for oxygen transport, forms oxyhemoglobin
Carbon Dioxide= Carbon dioxide is hydrated with water, forming carbonic acid

Question 30

What occurs during systemic gas exchange? What is the role of carbonic anhydrase and what is
chloride shift?

Answer 30

systemic gas exchange= unloading of o2 loading of co2
carbonic anhydrase= function is to catalyze the conversion of carbonic dioxide to carboni acid
chloride shift= exchange of bicarbonate and chloride across RBC’s

Question 31

What factors affect oxygen unloading? What are Bohr and Haldane effect?

Answer 31

Haldane effect (CO2 loading): low level of HbO2 (in active
tissue) enables blood to transport more CO2

factors affecting oxygen unloading
Bohr’s effect (O2 unloading): active tissue has  CO2, which raises
H+ and lowers pH, O2 is released
bisphosphoglycerate (BPG): RBC’s produce this as a
metabolic intermediate, BPG binds to Hb and causes
HbO2 to release O2
*  body temp (fever), TH, GH, testosterone, and
epinephrine all raise BPG and cause O2 unloading
ambient PO2: active tissue has  PO2 , O2 is released
– temperature: active tissue has increased temp, O2 is
released

Question 32

Where are peripheral and central chemoreceptors located and what do they detect?

Answer 32

peripheral chemoreceptors= located in aortic and carotid bodies. Aortic signals by vagus nerve while carotid bodies signal by glossopharyngeal
-they detect oxygen and carbon dioxide content in the blood

central chemoreceptors= located in medulla oblogonta, they detect changes to the pH of cerebrospinal fluid

Question 33

What is respiratory acidosis and how is it corrected?

Answer 33

respiratory acidosi= pH less than 7.35, corrected by hyperventilation because it pushes the reaction to the left by “blowing’ off carbon dioxide

Question 34

What is respiratory alkalosis and how is it corrected?

Answer 34

respiratory alkalosis= pH greater than 7.45, corrected by hypoventilation, pushes reaction to the right

Question 35

What are the effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide imbalances?

Answer 35

Oxygen imbalances
hypoxia= deficiency of oxygen in a tissue or the inability to use oxygen

hypoxia can lead to cyanosis (blueness of skin),

excess of oxygen can also be bad, oxygen toxicity develops when pure oxygen is breathed 2.5 atm or greater leading to seizures, coma, and death

Question 36

What are the various types of hypoxia? What are the effects of hypoxia on tissues?

Answer 36

hypoxia= oxgen deficient

Hypoxemic hypoxia= usually due to inadequate
pulmonary gas exchange ex: high altitudes ,drowning

ischemic hypoxia - inadequate circulation

anemic hypoxia - anemia

histotoxic hypoxia - metabolic poison (cyanide)

primary effect of hypoxia is tissue necrosis, cell death

Question 37

What are the causes of COPD and what are its effects?

Answer 37

Chronic Obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)= long-term obstruction of airflow and reduction of pulmonary ventilation

causes of COPD are cigarette smoking mainly but also air pollution

effects of COPD are bronchitis and emphysema

Question 38

How smoking causes lung cancer? What are the various types of lung cancers and where do
they originate and what do you know about the progression of lung Ca?