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Anatomy and Physiology I > Chapter 2 lecture - The Chemistry of Life > Flashcards

Chapter 2 lecture - The Chemistry of Life Flashcards

1
Q

Define elements

A

The simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means

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2
Q

How many naturally occurring elements are there?

A

91

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3
Q

Define atoms

A

The building blocks for each element

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4
Q

How many elements have a biological role?

A

24

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5
Q

What 6 elements make up 98.5% of our body weight?

A 
Oxygen (O)
Carbon  (C)  
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N) 
Calcium (Ca)
Phosphorus (P
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6
Q

Lesser elements make up what percent of the body?

A

0.8%

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7
Q

Trace elements make up what percent of the body?

A

Less than 0.7%

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8
Q

Where and in what quantity are trace elements found in the body?

A

They’re required in minute amounts and are found as a part of enzymes

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9
Q

Give examples of lesser and trace elements

A

Lesser: K, S, Na, Cl, Fe, Mg
Trace: I, Co, Cu, Z, Cr, etc.

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10
Q

Define minerals

A

Inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants and passed to humans

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11
Q

What percent of our body weight is made up of minerals?

A

4%

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12
Q

What two minerals are most commonly found in the body? What are some other minerals in the body?

A

Mostly Ca and P (also Cl, Mg, K, Na, and S)

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13
Q

Define electrolytes in the context of minerals

A

Mineral salts needed for nerve and muscle function

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14
Q

What are the three components of atoms?

A

Protons, neutrons, and electrons

This is just a note to myself that this chapter does also cover the basics of protons, neutrons, and electrons, but those flashcards can be found in lab 2

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15
Q

Elements with an abnormal number of neutrons are called ____

A

Isotopes

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16
Q

Average of mass numbers of an element = ______

A

Atomic weight

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17
Q

True or false: most isotopes are stable. Why?

A

True; few will disintegrate and give off energy

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18
Q

Intense radiation can be ionizing, how does this affect the body?

A

Intense radiation can be ionizing (ejects electrons, destroys molecules) and can cause genetic mutations and cancer

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19
Q

Where are radioactive isotopes used in medicine? What are some other examples?

A

Used for radiation therapy and diagnostic procedures. This includes PET scans, using I-131 determine size and activity of the thyroid gland, Hida scans (Tc-99 technetium with a ½ life of 6 hours), Cobalt-60 for cancer
Other examples of radioactive isotopes include UV radiation, X-rays, alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays

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20
Q

True or false: All elements have at least one radioisotope

A

True

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21
Q

True or false: X-rays and CT scans use radioactivity

A

False; they use very short electromagnetic waves.

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22
Q

Electron shells are also called ________

A

energy levels

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23
Q

In neutral atoms, number of electrons equals number of protons. Non-neutral atoms have a different number of electrons than normal; what are they called?

A

Ions (or electrolyte)

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24
Q

Define cations and anions

A

Anion—particle that gains electron(s) (net negative charge)

Cation—particle that loses electron(s) (net positive charge)

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25
Q

Ions with _____ charges are attracted to each other

a) opposite
b) same

A

a) opposite

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26
Q

Define electrolytes

A

Substances that ionize in water (acids, bases or salts)

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27
Q

Define salts

A

A compound (ex: NaCl) that can dissociate into water and contains cations (Na) and anions (Cl)

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28
Q

Define a molecule

A

Chemical particle composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond

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29
Q

Define a compound

A

Molecule composed of two or more different elements

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30
Q

Define molecular formula

A

Identifies constituent elements and how many atoms of each are present

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31
Q

Define structural formula

A

Identifies the location of each atom

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32
Q

What do chemical bonds do?

A

They hold atoms together within a molecule or attract one molecule to another

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33
Q

What are the three most important types of chemical bonds?

A

Ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds

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34
Q

Inert elements have a ____ outer shell

a) incomplete
b) full

A

b) full

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35
Q

Reactive elements have a ____ outer shell

a) incomplete
b) full

A

a) incomplete

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36
Q

Define ionic and covalent bonds

A

Ionic bonds: will transfer (gain/lose) electrons

Covalent bonds: will share electrons

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37
Q

Describe ionic bonds in detail (the attractions are between ____ and ____; electrons are shared or transferred; how easily are they broken)

A

Attractions between anions and cations
Electrons donated from one atom to another
Easily broken by water

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38
Q

____ compounds form crystals instead of individual molecules

A

Ionic

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39
Q

Define a single covalent bond

A

One pair of electrons is shared

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40
Q

What is the strongest type of bond?

A

Nonpolar bonds

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41
Q

In what type of bonds do electrons spend more time near oxygen?

A

Polar bonds

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42
Q

Define polar and nonpolar bonds

A

Nonpolar bond: electrons shared equally (strongest bond)

Polar bond: electrons shared unequally (spend more time near oxygen)

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43
Q

_____ sharing of electrons produces polar molecules

A

Unequal

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44
Q

What is an example of an intermolecular hydrogen bond? An intramolecular hydrogen bond?

A

Intermolecular hydrogen bond between water molecules

Intramolecular hydrogen bonds helps protein folding; holds sides of DNA together

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45
Q

Define hydrogen bonds

A

Weak charge attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen and a slightly negative oxygen (or nitrogen)

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46
Q

Define mixtures

A

When elements/molecules/objects are physically blended but not chemically combined

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47
Q

What are body fluids?

A

Complex mixtures of chemicals

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48
Q

What percent of the body is made up of water? What factors determine this?

A

Water is 50% to 75% of body weight; this depends on age, sex, fat content, etc.

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49
Q

What two things give water the properties to support life? What are these properties?

A

Polar covalent bonds and a V-shaped molecule give water solvency, cohesion, adhesion, chemical reactivity, and thermal stability

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50
Q

Define solvency

A

The ability to dissolve other chemicals

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51
Q

Define hydrophilic and hydrophobic

A

Substances that dissolve (mix) with water are Hydrophilic

Substances that do not mix easily with water are Hydrophobic

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52
Q

What is the universal solvent?

A

Water

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53
Q

Metabolic reactions depend on ______ of water

A

solvency

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54
Q

Define adhesion versus cohesion

A

Adhesion—water adheres to other substances

Cohesion—water molecules cling to each other

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55
Q

Give an example of adhesion in the body

A

Water adheres to large membranes reducing friction around organs

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56
Q

Water adhering to large membranes is an example of _____

A

adhesion

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57
Q

Why is water so cohesive?

A

Its hydrogen bonds

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58
Q

What is surface film (think bugs walking on water) on the surface of water due to?

A

Surface film on surface of water is due to molecules being held together by surface tension

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59
Q

Which element’s thermal stability helps stabilize the internal temperature of the body?

A

Water’s

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60
Q

Define high heat capacity and explain why water’s heat capacity is so high

A

Something with a high heat capacity absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before changing temperature.
In water, hydrogen bonds inhibit temperature increases by inhibiting molecular motion.

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61
Q

What is an effective coolant?

A

Water

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62
Q

What is chemical reactivity?

A

The ability to participate in chemical reactions

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63
Q

Water ionizes into what two things?

A

H^+ and OH^−

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64
Q

What can water ionize?

A

Water ionizes many other chemicals (acids and salts)

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65
Q

Define acids

A

A substance that dissociates in solution to produce hydrogen ions (H+) and anions.

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66
Q

Define bases (also called alkalines)

A

A substance that dissociates in solution to yield cations and hydroxide ions (OH-).

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67
Q

Name two important bases (aka alkalines) in the body

A

Bicarbonate ion (HCO3–) and ammonia (NH3) are important bases in the body

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68
Q

Define salt

A

A substance that dissociates in solution producing cations and anions but not hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions.

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69
Q

Define the three pH categories

A

Acidic: pH 0–6.99
Basic: pH 7.01–14
Neutral: pH 7.00

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70
Q

Body fluids each have their own ____ range they must maintain.

A

pH

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71
Q

What can help prevent large changes in pH?

A

Buffers

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72
Q

Define energy

A

The capacity to do work [move something]

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73
Q

True or false: all body activities are forms of work

A

True

74
Q

Define potential energy and give an example

A

Energy stored in an object, but not currently doing work (ex: water behind a dam waiting to be released)

75
Q

Define chemical energy and free energy

A

Chemical energy—potential energy in molecular bonds

Free energy—potential energy available in a system to do useful work

76
Q

Define kinetic energy and give an example

A

Energy of motion, doing work

Example: water flowing through a dam, generating electricity

77
Q

Define heat

A

Kinetic energy of molecular motion

78
Q

Define a chemical reaction

A

A process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken

79
Q

Define chemical equation

A

Symbolizes the course of a chemical reaction (reactants into products)

80
Q

What are the two classes of chemical reactions?

A

Decomposition and synthesis reactions

81
Q

What are decomposition reactions?

A

A large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones (i.e. AB > A + B)

82
Q

What are synthesis reactions?

A

Two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one (i.e. A + B > AB)

83
Q

Define reversible reactions. When do they reach equilibrium?

A

Reactions that can go in either direction under different circumstances. They reach equilibrium when ratio of products to reactants is stable.

84
Q

When do reactions occur?

A

When molecules collide with enough force and correct orientation

85
Q

When do reaction rates increase?

A

When:
the reactants are more concentrated
the temperature rises
a catalyst is present

86
Q

Define metabolism

A

All chemical reactions of the body

87
Q

Define catabolism

A

Energy-releasing decomposition reactions that break covalent bonds and produce smaller molecules

88
Q

Define anabolism

A

Energy-storing synthesis reactions that require energy input and the production of protein or fat

89
Q

Catabolism and anabolism are inseparably linked. Why?

A

Anabolism is driven by energy released by catabolism

90
Q

Define organic chemistry

A

The study of compounds containing carbon

91
Q

What are the four categories of carbon compounds/ organic molecules?

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

92
Q

Define macromolecules

A

Very large organic molecules with high molecular weights

93
Q

Define polymers and give an example

A

Macromolecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits (monomers).
Ex: starch is a polymer of about 3,000 glucose monomers.

94
Q

Monomers are linked together by ____________ and polymers are broken apart by _____

A

Monomers are linked together by dehydration synthesis and polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis

95
Q

Define dehydration synthesis

A

Monomers covalently bind together to form a polymer with the removal of a water molecule

96
Q

Define hydrolysis

A

Splitting a polymer by the addition of water

97
Q

What is the primary function of carbohydrates?

A

Energy

98
Q

What is the general formula of carbohydrates? Give an example.

A

(CH2O)n, n = # of carbon atoms

Ex: glucose, n = 6, so formula is C6H12O6

99
Q

What are the three sizes of carbohydrate molecules

A

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides

100
Q

What are the three types of monosaccharides? How are they produced?

A

Glucose, galactose, and fructose. They’re produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates

101
Q

What is glucose known as in medicine?

A

Blood sugar

102
Q

Define isomer

A

Same molecular formula – different arrangment

103
Q

What are the three types of disaccharides?

A

Sucrose, lactose, and maltose

104
Q

What is sucrose?

A

A disaccharide known as table sugar

Glucose + fructose

105
Q

What is lactose?

A

A disaccharide known as sugar in milk

Glucose + galactose

106
Q

What is maltose?

A

A disaccharide known as grain products

Glucose + glucose

107
Q

Give an example of a polysaccharide

A

Glycogen

108
Q

What is glycogen and where is it found in the body?

A

A glucose polymer that is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles

109
Q

Define starch

A

Energy storage in plants in the form of carbohydrates that is digestible by humans

110
Q

Define cellulose

A

A structural molecule in plants that’s a carbohydrate that is important for human dietary fiber (but indigestible to us)

111
Q

Are carbohydrates hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

Simple carbohydrates are small polar molecules (containing several -OH groups) which makes them hydrophilic

112
Q

Why are lipids only made up of one group?

A

Because either part of or the entire molecule is hydrophobic.

113
Q

What makes lipids different from carbs and proteins?

A

Usually contains more nonpolar covalent bonds than carbs or proteins

114
Q

True or false: lipids are a very diverse group

A

True

115
Q

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

A

Saturated fatty acids have a lot of hydrogen
Unsaturated fatty acids contain some double bonds
Essential fatty acids must be obtained from food

116
Q

What are triglycerides (neutral fats)?

A

Three fatty acids linked to glycerol

117
Q

What is the primary function of triglycerides (neutral fats)? What other thing does it help with?

A

Their primary function is energy storage (2x more energy than carbs or proteins). They also help with insulation and padding (shock absorption (adipose tissue))

118
Q

Since triglycerides are hydrophobic, how are they transported in the human body?

A

Proteins have to carry them (not sure about this one)

119
Q

What are phospholipids?

A

They are similar to neutral fats except one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group

120
Q

Phospholipids are made up of a ___ and ____

A

head and tail

121
Q

What is the “parent” steroid from which the other steroids are synthesized?

A

Cholesterol

122
Q

Give some examples of steroids

A

Cholesterol, cortisol, progesterone, estrogens, testosterone, and bile acids

123
Q

What are steroids important for?

A

They’re important for nervous system function and structural integrity of all cell membranes

124
Q

15% of our cholesterol comes from our diet, where does the other 85% of cholesterol come from?

A

85% is internally synthesized (mostly in liver)

125
Q

Define a protein

A

A polymer of amino acids

126
Q

Define amino acids and what three things are attached to it.

A

They are a central carbon with three attachments:

an amino group (NH2), carboxyl group (—COOH), and a radical group (R group)

127
Q

What determines the properties of an amino acid?

A

The R group

128
Q

How many amino acids are there?

A

20

129
Q

Amino acids only differ from each other in what way?

A

The R groups differ

130
Q

What is a peptide?

A

Any molecule composed of two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds

131
Q

How are peptides named?

A 
According to the number of amino acids they have:
Dipeptides have 2
Tripeptides have 3 
Polypeptides many
Proteins have more than 50
132
Q

Peptides are a component of ____

A

Proteins

133
Q

How do peptide bonds form?

A

Dehydration synthesis creates a peptide bond that joins the amino acid of one group to the carboxyl group of the next.

134
Q

What does the confirmation of a protein mean?

A

The unique, three-dimensional shape of protein crucial to function

135
Q

What is crucial to the function of a protein?

A

Its confirmation

136
Q

True or false: Proteins can reversibly change conformation and thus function

A

True

137
Q

Define denaturation and what causes it. Give an example.

A

Extreme conformational change that destroys the function of a protein caused by extreme heat or pH.
Example: when you cook an egg

138
Q

What are three specific examples of body functions that require proteins?

A

Muscle contraction, enzyme catalysis, and membrane channel opening

139
Q

What are the four levels of protein structure?

A

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary

140
Q

What are the seven main functions of proteins?

A

Structure, communication, membrane support, catalysis, recognition & protection, movement, and cell adhesion

141
Q

Give an example where proteins help with structure

A

In keratin and collagen.
(Keratin—tough structural protein of hair, nails, skin surface
Collagen—contained in deeper layers of skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth)

142
Q

Give an example where proteins help with communication

A

Between some hormones and receptors

143
Q

Give two examples where proteins help with membrane transport.

A

Channel proteins in cell membranes govern what passes. Carrier proteins transport solutes to other side of membrane.

144
Q

Give an example where proteins are needed for catalysis

A

Most enzymes are globular proteins

145
Q

Give an example where proteins help with recognition and protection

A

Antibodies are proteins

146
Q

Give an example where proteins help with movement

A

Motor proteins are molecules with the ability to change shape repeatedly

147
Q

Define motor proteins

A

Molecules with the ability to change shape repeatedly

148
Q

Give examples where proteins help with cell adhesion

A

Proteins bind cells together (example: sperm to egg)

and keep tissues from falling apart

149
Q

What are enzymes and what do they do for our bodies?

A

They’re proteins that function as biological catalysts by lowering activation energy. They permit reactions to occur rapidly at body temperature

150
Q

What permits reactions to occur rapidly at body temp?

A

Enzymes

151
Q

Define substrate

A

A substance an enzyme acts upon

152
Q

How are enzymes named?

A

Named for substrate with -ase as the suffix

Amylase enzyme digests starch (amylose)

153
Q

What are the three steps of an enzymatic reaction?

A

1) Enzyme and substrate
2) Enzyme-substrate complex
3) Enzyme and reaction products

154
Q

True or false: enzymes are reusable and not consumed by their reactions

A

True

155
Q

Are enzymes fast or slow?

A

They work at an astonishing speed: One enzyme molecule can consume millions of substrate molecules per minute

156
Q

What can change enzyme shape and function? What does changing an enzymes function do?

A

Temperature, pH and other factors can change enzyme shape and function, which can alter ability of enzyme to bind to substrate

157
Q

Are proteins hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

Hydrophilic

158
Q

Nucleic acids: Monomers are called _____

A

nucleotides

159
Q

Nucleic acids: What are the four components of nucleotides?

A

1- Nitrogenous base
2- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine or Uracil
3- Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
4- One or more phosphate groups

160
Q

Nucleotides become polymers called nucleic acids; what are three examples of nucleic acids?

A

ATP, RNA, and DNA

161
Q

Nucleic acids: Describe DNA

A

Contains millions of nucleotides
Constitutes genes
Instructions for synthesizing proteins

162
Q

Nucleic acids: Describe RNA’s function

A

A nucleic acid that follows DNA instructions to assemble proteins

163
Q

Nucleic acids: Describe ATPs function

A

ATP is body’s most important energy-transfer molecule
Holds energy in covalent bonds
Most energy transfers to and from ATP involve adding or removing the third phosphate

164
Q 
Which of the following are examples of compounds? 
a) O2 and CO2
b) O2 and H2O
c) CO2 and H2O
d) all of the above
Bonus points: Why?
A

c) CO2 and H2O
Explanation: a compound contains two or more elements, and although O2 is a molecule, it is not a compound because it only has one element

165
Q

True or false: a proton or electron of Carbon will act the same as a proton or electron of Oxygen.

A

True

166
Q

Why do our bodies need iron?

A

Iron is needed for our blood; oxygen doesn’t go through blood on its own, so iron is needed to grab it and carry it around. This is why we have things like iron infused cereals.

167
Q

Why do our bodies need iodine?

A

Iodine is used by the thyroid in thyroid hormones which are used for metabolism; you don’t need a lot, but if you don’t have it, you can’t make those hormones. This leads to low energy, cold feeling, etc. This is why we use iodized salt.

168
Q

Give an example of why minerals are important to our bodies using potassium

A

High or low potassium (K) = cardiac arrest

169
Q

What can radioactive isotopes do that stable isotopes can’t?

A

They disintegrate and give off energy, and this energy can break chemical bonds

170
Q

Give an example of using radioactive isotopes to negatively effect the human body

A

A former spy of soviet union was poisoned by someone putting a radioactive story in his tea (head this story before) and died due to radiation poisoning over a period of weeks.

171
Q

Give an example of how radioactive isotopes are used in human medicine

A

We have ways to detect energy (like energy given off by radioactivity) and pick it up on a scan, so we can use these radioactive isotopes to see different parts of the brain (like plaques on the brains of Alzheimer’s pts)

172
Q

True or false: atoms are not electrically neutral when they’re not ions

A

False; they are electrically neutral

173
Q

True or false: you always fill the inner electron shells first

A

True

174
Q

Give an example of something that’s a molecule but not a compound, and explain why

A

O2 is a molecule but not a compound, because compounds have two or more different elements.

175
Q

Give an example of the importance of structural formula

A

Shape/location/structure can determine function (ex: glucose, fructose, and galactose all have the same formula, but different properties)

176
Q

Give an example of inert elements with a full outer shell

A

Noble gasses

177
Q

How are single covalent bonds usually represented?

A

Represented by a solid line

178
Q

A weak charge attraction is also called a ____ ____

A

Hydrogen bond

179
Q

Define intermolecular and intramolecular

A

Intermolecular: between individual molecules
Intramolecular: within an individual molecule

180
Q

The intramolecular bonds in water are ____ _____ bonds, the intermolecular bonds between water molecules are _____ bonds

A

The intramolecular bonds in water are polar covalent bonds, the intermolecular bonds between water molecules are hydrogen bonds

Anatomy and Physiology I (39 decks)

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