Chapter 10 Flashcards
__ psychologists study how we create concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and form judgements
Cognitive
To simplify things further, we organize concepts into category __
hierarchies
We form some concepts by __
definition
Matching new items to the prototypes provides a quick and easy method for including items in a __
category
The more closely something matches our __ of a concept, the more readily we recognize it as an example of the concept
prototype
Contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics
algorithm
Two cognitive tendencies - __ and __ - often lead us astray
confirmation bias and fixation
Our __ __ based on what worked in the past precludes our finding a new solution to a new problem
mental set
We seldom take the time and effort to reason __; we just follow our __
systematically; intuition
To judge the likelihood of something, we intuitively compare it with our __ __ of that category; if the two match, the fact usually __ other consideration (stats or logic)
mental representation; overrides
Cognitively available events are more likely to __ - but not always
recur
An event’s availability to our memory need not indicate its __ in reality
likelihood
Warning people against __ doesn’t much reduce it
overconfidence
The wisdom to know when we know a thing and when we do not is born of __
experience
four influences on our intuitions about risk
1) We fear what our __ __ has prepared us to fear
2) We fear what we cannot __
3) We fear what is __
4) We fear what is most readily available in __
ancestral history
control
immediate
memory
Vivid events also distort our comprehension of __ and probable __
risks; outcomes
Dramatic __ capture our attention; probabilities we hardly __
outcomes; grasp
Our judgements and decisions may not be well __, and those who understand the power of __ can use it to influence important decisions
reasoned; framing
We more easily see the illogic of conclusions that run counter to __ __ than of those that agree with __ __
our beliefs; our beliefs
Once __ form and gets justified, it takes more compelling __ to change them than it did to create them
beliefs; evidence
__ reactions enable us to react quickly and usually adaptively
Intuitive
__ __ describes acquired, speedy expertise that feels like instant intuition
Immediate insight
__ enables us not only to communicate but to transmit civilization’s accumulated knowledge across generations
Language
Language is __ built of simplicity (phoneme, morpheme, word, sentence)
complexity
_ __: can read lips and discriminate speech sounds; beginning of the development of babies’ receptive language; babbles many speech sounds
4 months
__ language matures before their __ language
Receptive; productive
Before nurture molds our speech, nature enables a wide range of possible __
phonemes
_ __: phoneme sounds outside the infant’s native tongue begin to disappear; babbling resembles household language
10 months
_ __: Language develops rapidly into complete sentences
24+ months
Describe how Skinner described language development
Operant Learning with familiar learning principles: association, imitation, and reinforcement
What did Chomsky believe in?
An inborn universal grammar
Children begin using __ in a predictable order
morphemes
Chomsky viewed language will naturally occur, given adequate __; all languages have the same grammatical building blocks (__ __) that underlies all human language
nurture; universal grammar
All languages are __ of universal grammar for which our brains are __
dialects; prewired
We learn readily the __ of any language we experience, whether spoken or signed
grammar
We start speaking mostly in __ rather than __ and __
nouns; verbs and adjectives
Chomsky maintains our capacity for developing language is natural and quick b/c we come equipped with a __ __ __ already in place
language acquisition device
Chomsky: we are born with the hardware and an operating system for __, and our __ __ write the software
language; linguistic experiences
Before 1st birthday, brain discerned __ __ by statistically analyzing which syllables most often go together; babies come with a built-in readiness to learn __ rules
word breaks; grammatical
Once the grammar switches are thrown during a child’s developing years, mastering another grammar becomes more __
difficult
Before age _, learning language is wide open; after _, it gradually closes
7; 7
Late learners show less brain activity in __ __ regions active than native signers
right hemisphere
When a young brain doesn’t learn language, language-learning capacity never __ __
fully develops
Many bilinguals say they have a different __ __ __ depending on the language spoken
sense of self
People’s language use seems to shape how people __ of themselves
think
You can better recall distinctions between 2 colors when we assign different __ to colors
names
To expand language is to expand the ability to __; it pays to increase your __ power
think; word
Sometimes you think with __ memory- a mental picture of how you do it
procedural
__ __ helps people improve in any activity they do (athletics, piano, academics)
Mental rehearsal
Thinking affects our __ which then affects our __
language; thought
Animals (especially apes) display remarkable capacities for __; can form __
thinking; concepts
What did Kohler find out about animals?
animals have cognition; in his experiment where a chimp used a small stick to get the long stick to reach the fruit the chimp wanted (problem solving shaped by reinforcement)
Chimps and orangutans invent __ and pass them on to their peers and offspring
customs
__ have capacity for reasoning, self-recognition, empathy, imitation, and understanding another’s mind (have mental accomplishments of a _ year old)
Primates; 2
__ communicate and comprehend
Animals
Gardner taught a __ how to sign, and by age 32, the __ had a vocab of __ signs
chimp; chimp; 181
Prohibiting __ disrupts speech that has spatial content
gestures
Gesturing lightens the __ load carried by speech; __ entails gestures
cognitive; communication
Chimps do not develop __ and do not have our facility for __
language; language
__ alone possess language if by language we mean verbal or signed expression of complex grammar; if we mean the ability to communicate through a meaningful sequence of symbols, then __ are indeed capable of language
Humans; apes
__ exhibit insight, show family loyalty, communicate with one another, display altruism, transmit cultural patterns across generations, and comprehend the syntax of human speech
Primates
